Azorean Populations Research Articles

Prey consumption and conversion efficiency in females of two feral populations of Macrolophus pygmaeus, a biocontrol agent of Tuta absoluta

Macrolophus pygmaeus (Rambur, 1839) (Hemiptera: Miridae) is a polyphagous predator used in programs of biological control and integrated pest management as a natural enemy against small arthropod pests including whiteflies, thrips, spider mites and aphid. This mirid is also successfully mass reared under factitious prey for commercial purposes. In the present study we assessed and compared the prey consumption, weight gain and conversion efficiency in females of two populations of M. pygmaeus, from mainland Portugal and the Azores, fed on single prey diets of Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) eggs, or Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) eggs. We found that female’s prey consumption on eggs of T. absoluta was higher than that of E. kuehniella, presumably due to the comparative size/amount of biomass of the eggs. Translating prey consumption in biomass ingested, we only found a significant difference for consumption on E. kuehniella eggs by M. pygmaeus from the Azores. Despite the smaller size of females from the Azores, they were able to consume more prey and ultimately reaching a similar body weight and conversion efficiency compared with females from mainland, independently of the prey provided. Our results are in line with a previous study, showing differences in the life-history traits of M. pygmaeus from mainland Portugal and Azorean populations fed on alternative prey. From an applied perspective, our results are a contribution to the decision-making on the use of the most effective biocontrol agents for different prey and/or agroecosystem contexts.

Microsatellites reveal high levels of genetic admixture in the natural populations of Laurus azorica, Lauraceae

Laurus (Lauraceae) species are currently restricted to isolated refugia in the southern Black Sea, Mediterranean Basin, southern Morocco, and Macaronesian archipelagos. One to three species of Laurus has been recognized: the Azorean endemic Laurus azorica, L. nobilis from the Mediterranean, and L. novocanariensis from Madeira and the Canary Islands. This study aims to determine the population structure, genetic diversity, and associated patterns of gene flow within and between Azorean populations, using eight existing SSR markers. We also included plant material from L. nobilis populations found in the Azores, for comparison. Amplification was performed in 212 samples of L. azorica and in 30 samples of L. nobilis. For L. azorica, 78 alleles were amplified (average 9.75 alleles per loci). Bayesian analysis with STRUCTURE unveiled five genetic groups for the Azorean accessions, with high level of genetic admixture. Genetic diversity was generally high, with moderate levels of genetic differentiation among L. azorica populations. Moreover, high gene flow levels, likely mediated by past human translocations and naturally, by birds, might have contributed to the high level of genetic admixture observed possibly reflecting hybridization events between L. nobilis and L. azorica. Conservation measures should be applied to some populations of São Miguel, Santa Maria, and Flores Islands, based on the number of private alleles, and further, ad hoc translocation events should be avoided. Conservation in situ and the preservation of laurel forest remains are recommended. The study of this species’ taxonomy, genetics, and population dynamics in the Macaronesian region should be continued.

Multiplexed shotgun genotyping (MSG) data resolve phylogenetic relationships within and among archipelagos in Macaronesian Tolpis.

Plants endemic to oceanic archipelagos are suitable for studying evolution, being isolated on substrates of different ages. Evolution has been recent, rendering traditionally employed sequences insufficiently variable for resolving relationships. This study includes sampling in the genus Tolpis (Asteraceae) from the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde, and expands upon an earlier study demonstrating the efficacy of multiplexed shotgun genotyping (MSG) for resolving relationships in Canarian Tolpis. Genomic libraries for 90 accessions of Tolpis and two from the outgroup were generated for genotyping individuals using MSG. Loci were de novo assembled with iPyrad, which clusters MSG loci within and between samples. A maximum likelihood phylogeny was generated with RAxML. Ancestral area reconstruction was inferred using R package BioGeoBEARS. MSG data recovered a highly resolved phylogeny from population to inter-archipelago levels. Ancestral area reconstruction provided biogeographic hypotheses for the radiation of Macaronesian Tolpis. Four major clades were resolved. The Madeiran endemic T. macrorhiza is sister to other Tolpis. Species from the Canaries, Cape Verdes, and the continent are sister to T. succulenta from Madeira, which has a sister subclade of Azorean populations composed of T. succulenta and T. azorica. Population-level resolution suggests unrecognized taxa on several archipelagos. Ancestral reconstruction suggests initial dispersal from the continent to Madeira, with dispersal to the Azores, then dispersal from Madeira to the Canary Islands, with both subsequent dispersal to the Cape Verdes and back-dispersal to the continent. Single-island radiations and inter-island dispersal are implicated in divergence in Macaronesian Tolpis.

Demographics and Yield-Per-Recruit Assessment of the Vulnerable Spiny Lobster Palinurus elephas in the Azores-Implications for Conservation and Fisheries Management.

Simple SummaryThe spiny lobster Palinurus elephas has been intensively harvested across its range and is generally considered overfished, with global landings declining sharply in the last few years. Despite its economic and ecological importance, limited information is available to perform stock assessments and make robust management decisions. Here, demographics and exploitation levels of P. elephas were determined from coastal areas of the Azores, and the relevance of these data for fisheries management and conservation planning was discussed.The spiny lobster Palinurus elephas has been intensively harvested across its range and is generally considered overfished, with global landings declining sharply from an average of 820 t in 1960–79 to 385 t in 2000–19. Despite its economic and ecological importance, limited information is available to perform stock assessments and make robust management decisions. In this study, demographics and exploitation levels of P. elephas were determined from coastal areas of the Azores, and the relevance of these data for conservation planning was discussed. Carapace length varied between 39.6 and 174.3 mm, with mean sizes decreasing by depth. Males reached larger sizes and grew faster than females but were less dominant. Lifespan was 43 years for females and 60 years for males. The estimated mean length at first capture was 101.65 mm—around 58% of its asymptotic length. Fishing mortality and exploitation levels were close to the optimal values, indicating an uncertain future for Azorean populations if stock assessment and management initiatives are not focused on this species. Conservation and management strategies may benefit from these results under the ‘precautionary approach’ principle. However, up–to–date and accurate catch and fishing effort data need to be urgently collected.

Systematics of the Giant Sedges of Carex Sect. Rhynchocystis (Cyperaceae) in Macaronesia with Description of Two New Species

Abstract— Populations of Carex sect. Rhynchocystis (Cyperaceae) from the Macaronesian archipelagos (Azores and Madeira) have traditionally been treated either as a variety of the widely distributed Western Palearctic C. pendula, or directly synonymized under it. However, recent phylogenetic studies have shown that Azorean populations of C. pendula display a certain degree of differentiation from mainland plants, while the phylogenetic relationships of Madeiran populations remain unclear. Here we perform an integrated systematic study focused on the Macaronesian populations of Carex sect. Rhynchocystis to elucidate their phylogenetic relationships and taxonomic status. We reconstructed a molecular phylogeny based on five DNA regions and conducted a multivariate morphological analysis. Divergence time estimates show that the Macaronesian populations can be traced back to a Plio-Pleistocene origin. Our results suggest that these island populations of C. pendula are better treated as two distinct species within Carex sect. Rhynchocystis (i.e. C. leviosa from the Azores and C. sequeirae from Madeira). We provide morphological characters to differentiate the new species from C. pendula s. s., detailed descriptions of the three taxa, a revised key for the entire section, as well as detailed analytical drawings of the two newly described species. We also perform a critical evaluation of the taxonomic diversity of Carex in the Azores and Madeira. Finally, we informally assessed the conservation status of the new species at a global scale under IUCN categories and criteria, resulting in the proposal of the categories Least Concern for C. leviosa and Critically Endangered for C. sequeirae.

Genetic differentiation in Eurasian Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) from the Azores

The Eurasian Woodcock Scolopax rusticola is a widespread Palaearctic migratory wader, with purportedly sedentary populations occurring in the Macaronesian archipelago of the Azores. Here we used microsatellite markers to investigate patterns of genetic diversity and differentiation in these insular birds, and compared Azorean populations with those from mainland Europe. Azorean populations show a (non‐significant) trend for reduced diversity, and low but consistent differentiation from mainland populations; evidence for widespread over‐water migration (in either direction) is weak but must occasionally occur given the recovery of an Azorean ringed bird in France. It is thus likely that the Azorean populations diverged recently from their mainland counterparts, but gene flow is currently restricted.

The Impact of SARS-CoV-2 Outbreak on the Accommodation Selection of Azorean Tourists. A Study Based on the Assessment of the Azores Population’s Attitudes

Tourists’ intentions show many changing dynamics, both in terms of destination and accommodation selection. These changes in dynamics are seasonal and significantly affected by trends. Therefore, after an infectious disease outbreak, as is the case with COVID-19 caused by a new coronavirus called SARS-CoV-2, these dynamics change on an entirely different level and are so far unknown. Contextual research was conducted to define and analyze the impacts of SARS-CoV-2 on Azores residents’ tourism accommodations plans in 2020 by examining their intentions. The most frequent choice was to spend 2020 vacations at the vacation residences of family or friends (24.3%), followed by approximately 20% who chose three- to four-star hotels. A considerable increase in rural tourism accommodation selection intentions was noticed, obtaining the third position with 13.7%, followed by local accommodation (guest house) with 12.1% of the selection intentions. The study concludes that there are massive consequences of the SARS-CoV-2 crisis at the level of holiday choices and social isolation concerns for this ultra-peripheral territory.

Historical and contemporaneous human-mediated processes left a strong genetic signature on honey bee populations from the Macaronesian archipelago of the Azores

In this study, honey bees from the Macaronesian archipelago of the Azores were extensively surveyed to unveil diversity patterns. A total of 638 colonies were analyzed over two time periods using mtDNA and wing geometric morphometrics. The genetic composition revealed to be heterogeneous and related to historical and contemporary human-mediated introductions. The close relationship of Azorean populations with those from northern Portugal supports historical introductions by Portuguese settlers. The African sublineage AIII prevailed on five islands, contrasting with three islands where C haplotypes were dominant. On Pico and Graciosa, C haplotypes are due to recent imports of commercial queens. On Faial, the sudden replacement of AIII by C haplotypes coincided with arrival of Varroa destructor. This study deepens the current understanding of Macaronesian honey bees, suggesting that they are variants of the Iberian honey bee with differential levels of C-derived introgression.

Genetic and morphometric variation of the Blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla) on the Azores Archipelago reveals a recent range expansion

ABSTRACTThe Blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla, is one of the few passerine species that breeds in all the Macaronesian archipelagos. The sedentary habits of these populations contrast with the migratory populations from the Western Europe. However, little is known for Azorean populations. We assessed the phylogeography of populations from the Azores based on sequences of two mitochondrial genes and one nuclear gene in the Z-chromosome. We also analysed differences in eight morphometric characters from a total of 282 Blackcaps from all the Azores islands. Our results suggest the occurrence of historical and/or current gene flow among birds from all the islands. Blackcaps from the Azores are close relatives of those from Madeira and Portugal, indicating a recent range expansion to the Azores in the last 0.1 million years. The analysis of morphometric data showed a high morphological diversity among and within the islands, probably related to ecological traits.

New data on polymorphism of the meadow spittlebug Philaenus spumarius (L.) (Hemiptera: Aphrophoridae) from the island of São Miguel (Azores).

The meadow spittlebug, Philaenus spumarius (L.) (Hemiptera, Aphrophoridae) is a widespread insect species in the Holarctic region, exhibiting a dorsal colour balanced polymorphism. In the Azores the species is known from high elevations in Terceira and São Miguel islands. A sample of 235 individuals from Pico da Vara and Graminhais protected areas (São Miguel, Azores) (between 645 and 935 m a.s.l.), collected in 2000 and 2017, showed a remarkable high frequency of the melanic morphs flavicollis (FLA) and quadrimaculatus (QUA). In addition, a high frequency of melanics was observed in males. We explore the hypotheses for the origin of Azorean colonization and for the high proportion of melanism in the Azorean populations.

Nguyen Duc Thanh∗, Nguyen Thi Kim Lien, Pham Quang Chung, Tran Quoc Trong, Le Thi Bich Thuy, and Henry Nguyen

Upland rice grows on 19 million ha, about 15% of the world's rice plantation [2]. The production of upland rice is crucial to agricultural economy of many countries [15]. The yield of upland rice is very low with an average of about 1 t/ha. Drought is a major constraint to the productivity of upland rice. In this paper, we present the results on mapping QTLs for root traits related to drought resistance (maximum root length, root thickness, root weight to shoot and deep root weight to shoot ratios) in upland rice using a recombinant inbreed (RI) population derived from a cross between Vietnamese upland rice accessions. The first molecular linked of Vietnamese upland rice were constructed. The map consists of 239 markers (36 SSR and 203 AFLP markers) mapped to all 12 rice chromosomes. This map covered 3973.1 cM of rice genome with an average distance of 16.62 cM between the markers. Twenty three putative QTLs were detected. Among them, four QTLs for MRL, four QTLs for R/SR, four QTLs for DR/SR, two QTL for RN, two QTLs for RT, two for PH, and five QTLs for TN were recorded. There are several SSR markers such as RM250, RM270, RM263, RM242, RM221 linked to QTL regions. They could be very useful for drought resistant selection in rice. Some common QTLs for maximum root length and deep root weight to shoot ratio were observed in different genetic background (RDB09 × R2021 and IR64 × Azorean populations) and ecological locations (IRRI and Vietnam). These QTLs could be very useful for precise locating drought resistant gene(s) and marker-assisted selection.

Parthenogenesis did not consistently evolve in insular populations of Ischnura hastata (Odonata, Coenagrionidae)

1. The evolutionary advantages that have driven the evolution of sex are still very much debated, and a number of benefits of parthenogenesis over sexual reproduction have been proposed. In particular, parthenogenetic individuals are thought to exhibit higher probabilities of establishment following arrival in new, isolated habitats such as islands.2. One notable example of parthenogenesis occurring in islands is the damselfly Ischnura hastata, an American species that has colonised the Azores archipelago, where the populations consist only of females. This is the only known example of parthenogenesis within the insect order Odonata.3. Here, two island populations of I. hastata were studied, one in the Galapagos and one in Cuba, to test whether island colonisation is consistently associated with parthenogenesis in this species. Field capture–mark–recapture studies and laboratory rearing of field‐collected eggs were undertaken in both areas.4. Sex ratios in the field were found to be heavily female‐biased among mature individuals; however, fertility rates of field‐collected eggs were high, and the sex ratios in the laboratory did not differ from 1 : 1. Data from laboratory rearing showed that shorter larval development times and shorter adult life spans in males result in protandry, which might explain the skewed sex ratios in the field.5. These findings are consistent with sex differences in key demographic parameters which could predispose I. hastata to parthenogenesis. However, the Azores population of I. hastata remains the only documented case of asexual reproduction in this insect group.

Migration routes and non-breeding areas of Common Terns (Sterna hirundo) from the Azores

We describe the migration routes and non-breeding areas of Common Terns (Sterna hirundo) from the Azores Archipelago, based on ringing (banding) recoveries and tracking of three birds using geolocators. Over 20 years, there have been 55 transatlantic recoveries of Common Terns from the Azores population: six from Argentina and 49 from Brazil. The three tracked birds migrated south in different months (August, September, November), but the northern migration was more synchronous, with all leaving in April. The birds were tracked to three areas of the South American coast: the male spent November—April on the northern Brazilian coast (13°N–2°S), whereas the two females first spent some time off central-eastern Brazil (4–16°S; one for 1 week, the other for 3 months) and then moved south to the coast of south-eastern Brazil, Uruguay and northern Argentina (24–39°S). Although caution is needed given the small sample size and errors associated with geolocation, the three tracked terns potentially travelled a total of ∼23 200 km to and returning from their non-breeding areas, representing an average movement of ∼500 km day−1. With the exception of Belém, in northern Brazil, and Lagoa do Peixe, in southern Brazil, the coastal areas used by the tracked birds were also those with concentrations of ringing recoveries, confirming their importance as non-breeding areas for birds from the Azores.

Between‐ and within‐population variations in thermal reaction norms of the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi

Thermal reaction norms for growth rates of six Emiliania huxleyi isolates originating from the central Atlantic (Azores, Portugal) and five isolates from the coastal North Atlantic (Bergen, Norway) were assessed. We used the template mode of variation model to decompose variations in growth rates into modes of biological interest: vertical shift, horizontal shift, and generalist—specialist variation. In line with the actual habitat conditions, isolates from Bergen (Bergen population) grew well at lower temperatures, and isolates from the Azores (Azores population) performed better at higher temperatures. The optimum growth temperature of the Azores population was significantly higher than that of the Bergen population. Neutral genetic differentiation was found between populations by microsatellite analysis. These findings indicate that E. huxleyi populations are adapted to local temperature regimes. Next to between‐population variation, we also found variation within populations. Genotype‐by‐environment interactions resulted in the most pronounced phenotypic differences when isolates were exposed to temperatures outside the range they naturally encounter. Variation in thermal reaction norms between and within populations emphasizes the importance of using more than one isolate when studying the consequences of global change on marine phytoplankton. Phenotypic plasticity and standing genetic variation will be important in determining the potential of natural E. huxleyi populations to cope with global climate change.

Population genetic structure and conservation of the Azorean tree Prunus azorica (Rosaceae)

Prunus azorica is an endangered tree endemic to the Azores Archipelago, considered as a top priority species for conservation. Although propagation measures have been studied in detail, and a broad phylogeographic study on P. lusitanica was recently published, a detailed population genetics study devoted to Azorean taxon was lacking. To determine extant patterns of population genetic structure in P. azorica, we analysed eight populations from the five Azorean islands where the species presently occurs and the only extant individual from Flores Island. We also included samples of P. lusitanica subsp. hixa from the Canary Islands and Madeira, and of P. lusitanica subsp. lusitanica from mainland Portugal. Genotyping was undertaken for eight nuclear microsatellite polymorphic loci specifically isolated for P. azorica. Accessions of the different geographic regions were used to sequence ITS and trnL DNA regions. Regarding SSRs, the number of alleles ranged from 5 to 37 (mean = 12.6) per locus and from 2 to 64 per population (mean = 24). Our analysis showed a clear separation between samples from the Azores and those from other regions. Overall, Sao Miguel populations seemed to encompass the majority of the variability found within the archipelago. Regarding the Azorean populations only, the highest percentage of genetic variation was found within populations (92 %). Still, about 7 % of the variation was found among populations within islands. Expected heterozygosity ranged from values near 0 in the most depauperate populations up to 0.18. With a few exceptions, the level of differentiation between Azorean populations was generally low and gene flow was clearly above 1. Analysis of ITS sequences also detected differences between the Azores and the remaining regions but the trnL region did not reveal any variation. The genetic identity of P. azorica was recognised and thus should be preserved; however, the present results suggest that the Azorean taxon should be reinstated at the subspecies level.

Genetic structure of house mouse (Mus musculusLinnaeus 1758) populations in the Atlantic archipelago of the Azores: colonization and dispersal

We analyzed the genetic structure and relationships of house mouse (Mus musculus) populations in the remote Atlantic archipelago of the Azores using nuclear sequences and microsatellites. We typed Btk and Zfy2 to confirm that the subspecies Mus musculus domesticus was the predominant genome in the archipelago. Nineteen microsatellite loci (one per autosome) were typed in a total of 380 individuals from all nine Azorean islands, the neighbouring Madeiran archipelago (Madeira and Porto Santo islands), and mainland Portugal. Levels of heterozygosity were high on the islands, arguing against population bottlenecking. The Azorean house mouse populations were differentiated from the Portuguese and Madeiran populations and no evidence of recent migration between the three was obtained. Within the Azores, the Eastern, Western, and Central island groups tended to act as separate genetic units for house mice, with some exceptions. In particular, there was evidence of recent migration events among islands of the Central island group, whose populations were relatively undifferentiated. Santa Maria had genetically distinctive mice, which may relate to its colonization history. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London

Connectivity patterns inferred from the genetic structure of white seabream ( Diplodus sargus L.)

The marine environment seems, at first sight, to be a homogeneous medium lacking barriers to species dispersal. Nevertheless, populations of marine species show varying levels of gene flow and population differentiation, so barriers to gene flow can often be detected. We aim to elucidate the role of oceanographical factors in generating connectivity among populations shaping the phylogeographical patterns in the marine realm, which is not only a topic of considerable interest for understanding the evolution of marine biodiversity but also for management and conservation of marine life. For this proposal, we investigate the genetic structure and connectivity between continental and insular populations of white seabream in North East Atlantic (NEA) and Mediterranean Sea (MS) as well as the influence of historical and contemporary factors in this scenario using mitochondrial ( cytochrome b) and nuclear (a set of 9 microsatellite) molecular markers. Azores population appeared genetically differentiated in a single cluster using Structure analysis. This result was corroborated by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Monmonier algorithm which suggested a boundary to gene flow, isolating this locality. Azorean population also shows the highest significant values of F ST and genetic distances for both molecular markers (microsatellites and mtDNA). We suggest that the breakdown of effective genetic exchange between Azores and the others' samples could be explained simultaneously by hydrographic (deep water) and hydrodynamic (isolating current regimes) factors acting as barriers to the free dispersal of white seabream (adults and larvae) and by historical factors which could be favoured for the survival of Azorean white seabream population at the last glaciation. Mediterranean islands show similar genetic diversity to the neighbouring continental samples and non-significant genetic differences. Proximity to continental coasts and the current system could promote an optimal larval dispersion among Mediterranean islands (Mallorca and Castellamare) and coasts with high gene flow.

Tobacco consumption by the portuguese population. Data from the 2005–2006 National Health Survey

This study aims to contribute to the epidemiological portrayal of tobacco consumption in Portugal 2005–2006, using data from the National Health Survey.In this analysis the Portuguese population is characterised according to smoking patterns, exposure to smoke and attitudes to smoking in general. Data is presented by gender, age groups, regions of residence and other social characteristics. Frequencies results are estimated values for the Portuguese population in 2005. Logistic binary regression models are used to study regular smoking-related characteristics.Results show that 20.9% of the Portuguese population (including Madeira and the Azores) aged 15 or more were smokers (male: 30.9%; female: 11.8%), and that 18.7% smoked regularly. More than one half of men were smokers or ex-smokers (56.9%) whereas the great majority of women had never smoked (81.3%).After removing the effect of the different age structures among regions, the highest rate of males who smoked regularly was observed in the Azores region (31.0%), followed by the Alentejo region (29.9%). The highest rate of women who smoked regularly occurred in the Lisbon and Tagus Valley region (15.4%), followed by the Algarve region (12.8%).Daily average cigarette consumption was higher among male (20 cigarettes) than female smokers (13 cigarettes). The Azores population presented the highest daily average consumption (male: 23 cigarettes; female: 16 cigarettes).

Consumo de tabaco na população portuguesa retratado pelo Inquérito Nacional de Saúde (2005/2006)

This study aims to contribute to the epidemiological portrayal of tobacco consumption in Portugal 2005-2006, using data from the National Health Survey.In this analysis the Portuguese population is characterised according to smoking patterns, exposure to smoke and attitudes to smoking in general. Data is presented by gender, age groups, regions of residence and other social characteristics. Frequencies results are estimated values for the Portuguese population in 2005. Logistic binary regression models are used to study regular smoking-related characteristics.Results show that 20.9% of the Portuguese population (including Madeira and the Azores) aged 15 or more were smokers (male: 30.9%; female: 11.8%), and that 18.7% smoked regularly. More than one half of men were smokers or ex-smokers (56.9%) whereas the great majority of women had never smoked (81.3%).After removing the effect of the different age structures among regions, the highest rate of males who smoked regularly was observed in the Azores region (31.0%), followed by the Alentejo region (29.9%). The highest rate of women who smoked regularly occurred in the Lisbon and Tagus Valley region (15.4%), followed by the Algarve region (12.8%).Daily average cigarette consumption was higher among male (20 cigarettes) than female smokers (13 cigarettes). The Azores population presented the highest daily average consumption (male: 23 cigarettes; female: 16 cigarettes).Rev Port Pneumol 2009; XV (6): 1005-1027

On the relationships of the genus Napaeus (Gastropoda: Pulmonata: Enidae) with the descriptions of four new species from the Canary Islands

Species of the Napaeus subgenera show incongruences between genital anatomy and molecular phylogenetic data. In this study, four new Napaeus species from the Canary Islands are described. Shell drawings of the 56 known Napaeus species were obtained from shell photographs for comparison. Differences between some genital system character-states of the species described here and those of the original subgenera descriptions are evident. Consequently, in the absence of phylogenetic analyses, the new species are not assigned to the Napaeus subgenera. In addition, the possible relationships among Macaronesian enids are preliminarily evaluated. Within the Macaronesian region, enids are exclusively present in the Canaries and the Azores. The absence of enids from Madeira, combined with the differences in genital anatomy between the Canarian and Azorean enids and the relatively large distance between these archipelagos, may indicate different immigration pathways (Africa/Europe, respectively) and possibly different phylogenetic origins for the Canarian and Azorean enid populations.