Azolla Species Research Articles

Unveiling the nutritional treasure trove: A comparative analysis of two Azolla species for potential food applications

The study investigates the nutritional potential of Azolla pinnata and Azolla caroliniana for its food applications. Nutritional evaluation revealed it as a valuable source of major and minor nutrients. Both species exhibited an abundance of vitamins as well as essential macro and micro mineral components. The essential amino acid profile ranged from 41.96% to 42.91%, and non-essential amino acids comprising of 57.1–58.02%. Fatty acid analysis indicated a significant amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (26.96% - 28.06%) and Monounsaturated fatty acids were present in the range of 8.34–8.81%. The ω3:ω6 ratio favored a healthy balance in both species indicating a ratio of 4:1. Protein quality indices showed encouraging values with regard to Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER), Essential Amino Acid Index (EAAI), Nutritional Index (NI), Biological Value (BV), and Chemical Score (CS) for both species. Findings suggested Azolla species as promising candidate for its food applications. A balanced and varied diet is essential for human health, and to meet this, Azolla can be explored as a complementary source of nutrient along with other major dietary sources.

The Potential Capabilities of two species of Azolla as a Bioaccumulator in Summer

Now a days, worldwide excessive use of chemical fertilizer, can have many undesirable effects on human health and the environment, which can be reduced or eliminated by adopting new agricultural practices such as use of organic inputs, namely manure, biofertilizer. On the other hand, water eutrophication has been a challenging global environmental problem recently. Plants can be grown in eutrophicated water, and after consumption from eutrophicated water, the harvested biomass of this plant can play important role as a useful green manure, rich in N P K. The use of Azolla, a N fixing water-fern can be a novel idea in this regard. Azolla spp. have a unique capability to accumulate more P, K within its body than its requirement and can be considered as NPK tablets. So, the experiment was conducted in order to find out the efficient species with regard to high biomass production with high accumulation of P, K, and tolerating higher concentration of media-P in summer. Light intensity and concentrations of media-P have a remarkable influence on the productivity and NPK accumulation of the species. Open area was more favorable than the partial shade for biomass production. Both the species have the capability to tolerate 60 ppm of media-P and produce their maximum biomass at only 15 ppm of media-P. A. filiculoides was found to produce more biomass, accumulate more tissue-P, contain more or less the same amount of N, and less K when compared with A. pinnata. Thus, in hot climate, A. filiculoides can be considered better accumulator of Phosphorus and A.pinnata can be considered better accumulator of Potassium being an effective scavenger of P, K.

Adsorption of Heavy Metal from Wastewater by Bioabsorbent Modified Azolla microphylla and Lemna minor

Environmental toxicity from rapid industrialization raises concerns about water pollution caused by industrial waste and urban sewage. Aquatic macrophytes, such as the Azolla species, have shown promise in absorbing heavy metals and nutrients from water. This study introduces a novel approach by evaluating Azolla Microphylla and lemna minor as an economical adsorbent for copper removal from rivers. Moreover, this study stands out by conducting thorough characterization analyses. The adsorbent material underwent XRD, SEM, BET, and FTIR analyses after being crushed and sieved to 1-2 mm. Copper was extracted from river water using UV-Vis detection at 285 nm. Optimal conditions for adsorption were determined at pH 4, 30 minutes of contact time, and 0.4 g of adsorbent. Copper concentrations in the Sungai Petani, Sungai Selangor, and Sungai Langat ranged from 2 mgL-1 to 5 mgL-1. Azolla proves effective as a copper adsorbent due to its simplicity in sample preparation, time-saving benefits, cost-effectiveness compared to conventional systems, and high copper recovery rate. By successfully removing copper, a prevalent heavy metal contaminant in industrial waste and urban sewage, this research contributes to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6 for clean and safe water supplies.

Exploring the Micro-nutritional and Anti-nutritional Aspects of Azolla for its Application as Functional Food Ingredient

Background: Aquatic plants are unexploited sources of bioactive and functional compounds having the potential as food ingredients for developing novel functional food and nutraceutical products. Azolla, an aquatic fern, is an excellent source of nutrients and secondary metabolites and hence finds application possibilities in the human diet. The goal of the current investigation was to expore the micronutrients as well as identify certain anti-nutritional elements in the water fern Azolla. Methods: In two species of Azolla viz., Azolla pinnata and Azolla caroliniana; the micro and anti-nutritional factors were determined using standard laboratory methods. Result: The findings demonstrated that both species of Azolla contained hydrocyanide, phytic acid, oxalate, tannin and saponin, all of which were below the critical level. Comparatively, saponin was found to be in the highest concentration of 9.13±0.012% and 7.52±0.031% and hydrocyanide was the lowest with the content of 0.0045±0.0004% and 0.0036±0.0002% for A. pinnata and A. caroliniana, respectively. Azolla caroliniana, however, outperformed Azolla pinnata in total caroteniod concentration, demonstrating its superior cardio-protective and anti-cancerous properties. Results indicated Azolla pinnata species to be more suitable for fortification as it contained lower anti-nutrients and was high in chlorophyll content when compared to the counterpart.

Nutritional properties of raw and cooked Azolla caroliniana Willd., an aquatic wild edible plant.

Azolla caroliniana Willd. is an understudied wild edible plant native to the Eastern United States. Other species of Azolla have been used across the world for several thousand years as a livestock feed and as "green manure." The use of Azolla for human consumption is thought to be limited by its high total polyphenolic content (TPC). However, the TPC and nutritional content of A. caroliniana has not been thoroughly studied. We measured TPC and other nutrients before and after cooking methods designed to lower TPC. We found that TPC was 4.26 g gallic acid equivalent (GAE) kg-1 DW in raw A. caroliniana. All cooking methods significantly lowered TPC. Protein content was 19% DW, and the apparent protein digestibility was 78.45%. Our yield was 173 g FW m-2 day-1 and 5.53 g DW m-2 day-1. Azolla caroliniana is a high-yielding plant with great potential for cultivation and domestication.

Comparative Study on the Phytochemical Characterization and Biological Activities of Azolla caroliniana and Azolla filiculoides: In Vitro Study.

Azolla is a floating fern known for its various biological activities. Azolla caroliniana and Azolla filiculoides are multifunctional plants that exhibit biological activity in multiple ways, making them beneficial for various applications. This study aimed to compare the phytochemical composition and antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxicity activities of two Azolla species, namely Azolla caroliniana and Azolla filiculoides. GC-MS analysis revealed distinct patterns of phytochemical composition in the two species. The methanol extracts of A. caroliniana and A. filiculoides exhibited moderate antimicrobial activity against Geotrichum candidum, Enterococcus faecalis, and Klebsiella pneumonia. Furthermore, both extracts demonstrated potential antioxidant activity, as evidenced by a dose-dependent increase in a ferric-reducing activity power (FRAP) assay. Additionally, the extracts showed promising anti-inflammatory activities, including inhibition of protein denaturation, heat-induced red blood cell (RBC) hemolysis, and nitric oxide (NO) production by macrophages. Moreover, the methanolic extracts of A. caroliniana displayed higher cytotoxicity against HepG2 cells than those of A. filiculoides in a dose-dependent manner. These findings suggest that the methanolic extracts of A. caroliniana and A. filiculoides contain distinct compounds and exhibit potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic activities against HepG2 cells. In conclusion, our data indicate that the methanolic extracts of A. caroliniana and A. filiculoides have differential phytochemical compositions and possess potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and HepG2 cytotoxic activities.

Ecological distribution and genetic diversity of Azolla in Uganda

BackgroundAzolla is an important aquatic fern whose agronomic potential has not been fully exploited in Uganda. This study aimed at determining the genetic variation in the Azolla species existing in Uganda and the factors influencing their distribution in the different agro-ecological zones of Uganda. Molecular characterization was preferred in this study because of its efficiency in detecting variations among closely related species.ResultsFour species of Azolla were identified in Uganda with 100, 93.36, 99.22 and 99.39% sequence identities to the reference database sequences of; Azolla mexicana, Azolla microphylla, Azolla filiculoides and Azolla cristata, respectively. These different species were distributed in four out of the ten agro-ecological zones of Uganda which are situated in close vicinity to large water masses. The principal component analysis (PCA) results revealed that maximum rainfall and altitude significantly accounted for the variations in the distribution of Azolla with factor loadings of 0.921 and 0.922, respectively.ConclusionMassive destruction coupled with prolonged disturbance of Azolla’s habitat negatively affected its growth, survival and distribution in the country. Therefore, there is a need to develop standard methods that can preserve the various species of Azolla, so as to salvage them for future use, research and reference.

Evaluation of Temperature - Tolerant Azolla Strains Suitable for Tiruvallur District

The survey on Azolla diversity revealed that Azolla pinnata and Azolla microphylla are the two species found throughout the agro-climatic zones of Tamil Nadu.The pot-culture experiments to screen the strains for local adaptability for the Tiruvallur district revealed that during cold months (Nov-Dec), most of the species grow with high growth rate (5 to 7 days doubling time) and during Jan-Feb, the doubling time increased from 7.5 to 9.5 days.Among the different Azolla species studied, A. pinnata and A. microphylla recorded a high growth rates and higher biomass production at elevated temperatures. Selected Azolla strains were highly suitable to grow well under open field conditions.Azolla pinnata and Azolla microphylla strains suitable for high-temperature zone district of Tamil Nadu (Tiruvallur) were identified. These strains can withstand the temperature up to 37°C in the months of July – Aug and produce high biomass and application of Azolla microphylla (Dual crop) with a 75 per cent recommended dose of NPK recorded as the maximum grain and straw yield of rice followed by the Azolla pinnata(dual crop) with 75 per cent recommended dose of NPK. These Azolla strains could be used as animal feed and also as green manure.

Interspecific Variability in Growth Characteristics and Phytoremediation of Cu by Free-Floating Azolla Macrophytes

The phytoremediation potential of aquatic plants, particularly for Cu, is scarcely reported in the pertinent literature. In this regard, differential growth behavior and phytoaccumulation ability of three free-floating Azolla species (A. japonica, A. pinnata, and A. hybrid) were evaluated in a climatically controlled (a temperature of 25/20 °C, light/dark 16/8 h, a light intensity of 60 µmol m−2 s−1, and a relative humidity of 65%) microcosm study. Azolla plants were exposed to solutions having three Cu concentrations (0, 3, and 6 mg L−1) under two incubation periods (4 and 8 days). Different Cu treatments significantly reduced Azolla biomass during both incubation periods and A. pinnata was the most sensitive species. Azolla plants grown in aqueous solutions showed substantial variations in Cu removal capacity. Higher bioconcentration values displayed by Azolla plants indicated that these plants can be deployed as potential plants for Cu removal from Cu contaminated water. Nevertheless, the plants exposed to higher Cu concentrations displayed color changes and root detachment due to Cu phytotoxic effects which may also ultimately lead to plant death. Significant correlations between Cu removed from the aqueous solutions and Cu contents of plant biomass indicated that Cu phytoremediation by Azolla plants was due to the phytoaccumulation mechanism because the removed Cu from aqueous solutions was accumulated in plant biomass. Introduced Azolla species, i.e., A. hybrid, displayed comparable Cu removal efficiency with naturally grown Azolla species, i.e., A. japonica and A. pinnata. Tested Azolla species proved to be suitable candidates to remediate Cu contaminated water and can be deployed for phytoremediation.

Comparative analysis of the endophytic bacteria inhabiting the phyllosphere of aquatic fern Azolla species by high-throughput sequencing

BackgroundAzolla is a small floating fern living in symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria and provides a variety of important ecosystem benefits. Previous studies have presented that Azolla harbors diverse bacteria that may play a key role in host fitness and productivity. However, the characteristics of endophytic bacteria inhabiting the phyllosphere of different species of Azolla have not yet been fully understood.ResultsIn this study, the 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) V5-V7 region of bacteria was determined by Illumina high-throughput sequencing platform to study the diversity and richness of endophytic bacterial communities in the phyllosphere of five Azolla species collected from different countries. A total of 1150 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were detected for the endophytic bacteria community. According to the α diversity indices, the diversity of bacteria was ordered as Azolla imbricata > A. pinnata > A. filiculoides > A. mexicana > A. caroliniana. The PCoA results displayed that the bacterial communities of A. mexicana and A. caroliniana shared the highest similarity, followed by the similarity between A. pinnata and A. imbricata, and they were significantly distinct from the community of A. filiculoides. The dominant bacteria of Azolla mainly belonged to the phylum of Proteobacteria, followed by Actinobacteria, Chlorobillobacteria, and Firmicutes. In detail, the relative abundance of Proteobacteria in A. imbricata was 52.23%, whereas it was more than 80.00% in the other four species of Azolla. Notably, Herbaspirillum (45.91%, 44.08%) and Methylophilus (29.97%, 37.96%) were the main genera inhabiting A. mexicana and A. caroliniana respectively. Ferrovibrio (18.54%) and Rhizobium (16.68%) were the dominant genera inhabiting A. filiculoides. The group of unidentified genera (41.63%, 44.92%) consisted most of the bacteria in A. imbricata and A. pinnata respectively. Further analysis suggested that the significant different bacteria identified in LDA Effect Size analysis existed Azolla species-specific patterns.ConclusionsIn summary, all results suggested that the diversity and composition of the endophytic bacterial communities were different in Azolla species.

WATER FERNS OF Salviniaceae FAMILY IN PHYTOREMEDIATION AND PHYTOINDICATION OF CONTAMINATED WATER

Background. Aquatic ecosystems are subjected to significant stress loads and depletion due to the influx of pollutants of inorganic and organic origin, that pose a serious threat to human health. The United Nations Environment Program has defined phytoremediation as an effective eco-technology for the removal, detoxification and immobilization of pollutants using plants. Water ferns of the Salviniaceae family belong to promising phytoremediants. They are characterized by high growth rates, resistance to adverse environmental factors, capable of adsorbing pollutants, including heavy metals. Species of the genus Salvinia and Azolla are used to assess the ecological state of water and study ecotoxicological effects of pollutants. Aim. Analysis and generalization of the latest scientific results on the use of species of the Salviniaceae family for phytoremediation and phytoindication of contaminated water. Results. In this review, we have highlighted key information on emerging phytotechnologies, including phytodegradation, phytostabilization, rhizofiltration, rhizodegradation, and phytovolatization. The growth and distribution features of species of the genus Salvinia and Azolla were described and current information on the use of water ferns for cleaning polluted water from heavy metals, inorganic and organic pollutants was presented. Data on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of the genus Salvinia and Azolla species adaptation to the toxic effect of pollutants of various origins were discussed. We focused special attention on the use of water ferns of the Salviniaceae family to control water pollution.

The potential distributions of African Azolla species and their implications for African wetland ecosystems for the future

AbstractClimate change is predicted to affect species in aquatic ecosystems. In Africa, factors that may influence the responses of aquatic species are poorly studied and challenging to predict. In this study, we examined the potential distribution of three aquatic fern species in the genus Azolla in Africa under projected climate change scenarios. MaxEnt was used to create ecological niche models of the three species using occurrence data and environmental variables. All models had satisfactory AUC and TSS values, indicating high prediction precision (AUC and TSS > 0.801). Results showed that elevation and precipitation were the most important variables limiting the species' expansion in the future. In addition, we observed significant variations in the climatic niches of the three species and their distinct climatically appropriate regions. The current potential distribution ranges for the species varied between 2,328,726 km2 and 4,026,363 km2. According to the model predictions for the current period, the potential range of Azolla species extended outside the known and recorded locations; however, under future climate conditions, the species were projected to lose between 8.1% and 48% of their suitable habitats due to climate change. Our findings can be used to develop sustainable conservation measures for aquatic species and raise awareness about the effects of climate change.

De novo transcriptome analysis reveals the molecular regulatory mechanism underlying the response to excess nitrogen in Azolla spp.

Phytoremediation potential of Azolla in removal of nitrogen from wastewater has been promising. However, little is known about the response of Azolla to high concentrations of nitrogen. In this study, the responses of four Azolla species to different concentrations of total nitrogen ranging from 0 to 180mg L-1 were examined. The responses varied among different species, and the high nitrogen-tolerant species A. caroliniana and A. microphylla could remove nitrogen from aqueous solutions with higher efficiencies. We further performed transcriptome analysis to explore the molecular mechanism underlying the response to high nitrogen stress in Azolla. RNA-seq analysis revealed a synergistic regulatory network of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in nitrogen transport and metabolism in A. microphylla, mainly in the roots. Under high nitrogen treatment, the DEGs encoding nitrate transporters or nitrate transporter 1/peptide transporters (NRTs/NPFs), ammonium transporters (AMTs), nitrate reductase (NIA), nitrite reductase (NIR) and glutamine synthetases/glutamate synthases (GSs/GOGATs) were down-regulated, and the DEGs encoding glutamate dehydrogenases (GDHs) were up-regulated, suggesting that A. microphylla possessed high tolerance against excess nitrogen through down-regulation of nitrate and ammonium uptake and fine regulation of nitrogen assimilation in the roots. Our results provided a theoretical foundation for better utilization of Azolla for wastewater treatment.

Study on storage techniques and temperature conditions for sporocarp germination and development in azolla

Abstract Azolla is a small freshwater fern reproduces sexually and asexually (by splitting). The spores’ formation through sexual reproduction in the azolla species is influenced by climatic condition. Keeping this fact in view, the present study was conducted with an aim to study the impact of temperature on the sporocarp formation and also developing storage techniques for sexual propagation in the azolla species. The study showed that the sporulation in Azolla pinnata was more sensitive to increase in the temperature than Azolla microphylla. Azolla pinnata did not sporulate on rising maximum temperature; however sporulation in Azolla microphylla was delayed by one month due to rise in the temperature during second year compared to the first year. Conversion of the freshly collected sporocarps into Azolla microphylla plants were decreased by 4.2–9.3% on increasing minimum and maximum temperatures by 5°C and 8°C, respectively and conversion of the one month old sporocarps into plants was decreased by 1.8–8.7% on rising minimum and maximum temperatures. On storing sporocarps in the refrigerator resulted in higher germination percentage than stored at room temperature. Conversion of freshly collected sporocarps into Azolla plants increased on storage of the sporocarps mixing with soil (1:15) in the refrigerator than at room temperature. Germination of one month old Azolla microphylla sporocarps on storage in refrigerator after mixing with soil decreased during second year compared to first year. Therefore, in a controlled environment, azolla may be encouraged to grow sporocarps for exploiting full potential of azolla for eco-friendly agricultural and livestock management.

Light and Temperature Shape the Phenylpropanoid Profile of Azolla filiculoides Fronds.

Azolla is a genus of floating freshwater ferns. By their high growth and N2 fixation rates, Azolla species have been exploited for centuries by populations of South-east Asia as biofertilizers in rice paddies. The use of Azolla species as a sustainable plant material for diverse applications, such as feeding, biofuel production, and bioremediation, has encountered a growing interest over the last few years. However, high levels of feed deterrent flavonoids in their fronds have discouraged the use of these ferns as a sustainable protein source for animal consumption. Additionally, information on how and to what extent environmental determinants affect the accumulation of secondary metabolites in these organisms remains poorly understood. Moving from these considerations, here, we investigated by an untargeted metabolomics approach the profiles of phenylpropanoid compounds in the fronds of Azolla filiculoides sampled under control and pigment-inducing stress conditions. In parallel, we assayed the expression of essential structural genes of the phenylpropanoid pathway by quantitative RT-PCR. This study provides novel information concerning A. filiculoides phenylpropanoid compounds and their temporal profiling in response to environmental stimuli. In particular, we show that besides the already known 3-deoxyanthocyanidins, anthocyanidins, and proanthocyanidins, this fern can accumulate additional secondary metabolites of outstanding importance, such as chemoattractants, defense compounds, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavengers, and crucial as dietary components for humans, such as dihydrochalcones, stilbenes, isoflavones, and phlobaphenes. The findings of this study open an opportunity for future research studies to unveil the interplay between genetic and environmental determinants underlying the elicitation of the secondary metabolites in ferns and exploit these organisms as sustainable sources of beneficial metabolites for human health.

Water fern spores (Salviniales) from the Late Cretaceous of Patagonia, Argentina

We describe a water fern spore assemblage from the Maastrichtian La Colonia Formation, Chubut Province, Patagonia, Argentina. The assemblage includes three species of Azolla (A. andreisii sp. nov., A. coloniensis, and A. sp. 1), two species of Azollopsis (A. intermedia and A. tomentosa), Crybelosporites pannuceus, Gabonisporis cristata, Ghoshispora sp., Grapnelispora loncochensis, two species of Molaspora (M. lobata and M. reticulata), and Paleoazolla patagonica. A. tomentosa, A. intermedia, G. cristata, and M. reticulata are recorded for the first time in the Southern Hemisphere. Ghoshispora sp. constitutes the southernmost record of the genus and its first mention for Argentina. In addition, the genus Azollopsis is emended to include megaspore apparatuses with more than one megaspore. This water fern spore assemblage is one of the most diverse so far known for South America and substantiates the significant radiation that aquatic ferns underwent worldwide at the end-Cretaceous. Furthermore, it also implies that the presence of widespread suitable paleoenvironments allowed the establishment and rapid evolution of these plant communities in Patagonia.

Toxicological Evaluation of the Repeated Dose Administration of the Ethanolic Extract of <i>Azolla microphylla</i> in Wistar Albino Rats

Azolla microphylla is an easily cultivable aquatic plant with the commendable nutritious property. Recent reports on Azolla species emphasize the therapeutic potential of the plant extracts. Moreover, the same genus of plant also had displayed antioxidant potential owing to its free radical scavenging tendency. Although these attributes were identified, a study investigating the toxicological property of different dosages of ethanolic extract of A. microphylla (EAM) is not yet reported. Thus the present study aims for the in vivo toxicological evaluation of the EAM in Wistar strain of rats. Daily doses of 0, 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 mg/kg body weight of EAM were administered orally to group-I, group-II, group-III, group-IV & group-V rats, respectively for 14 days. Biochemical and histopathological studies were established through standard methods. The acute toxicity results suggest the non-toxic nature of the extract supported with the absence of mortality and toxic symptoms until 72 h of observation. The results of sub-acute toxicity study in the extract-treated rats (group-II to group-IV) indicate non-significant changes to the biochemical (total protein, AST, ALT, LDH, albumin, globulin, urea, creatinine, cholesterol, & triglycerides), hematological (Hemoglobin, RBCs, WBCs, platelets, monocytes, lymphocytes, & neutrophils), and histopathological observations when compared to the control group of rats. However, group-V rats were treated with 2000 mg/kg b.w. exhibited statistically significant variations to most of the biochemical and hematological parameters although no mortality/physical toxic signs were reported till the end of the experimental period. Thus, the sub-acute toxicity results suggest that the extracts were non-toxic and safe to rats between 250-2000 mg/kg b.w. concentration under 14 days observational period. Moreover, as there was no mortality upto 2000 mg/kg b.w., 50% lethal dose (LD50) could not be determined, and hence it is considered to be greater than 2000 mg/kg/day.

Differential Production of Phenolics, Lipids, Carbohydrates and Proteins in Stressed and Unstressed Aquatic Plants, Azolla filiculoides and Azolla pinnata.

Simple SummaryCrops are the primary feedstock for the production of food/feed and energy, and our dependency on them has been increasing over the last decade. Climate change, reduced land for active agriculture, increased population, reduced amount of clean water, and high costs of chemical fertilizers and energy make modern agriculture unsustainable. Demands are rising for the next generation of cheap and sustainable feedstock, which could be productive under existing conditions. Aquatic plants, such as the free-floating species duckweed and Azolla, have started attracting attention because of their unique features, presenting advantages over terrestrial plants. Terrestrial plants grow on the land or need to be on dry land to survive. On the other hand, aquatic plants have the ability to thrive in ponds under controlled conditions using wastewaters as a source of nutrients. Over the last decade, Azolla species became an attractive feedstock for livestock because of their accumulation of valuable products, phenolic compounds, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Stress-triggered changes in these nutritional components could have a significant impact on the nutritional value of Azolla, which is used as a sustainable food supplement for livestock, poultry, and fish industries. This paper aims to assess the effects of environmental and nutrient stresses on the biosynthesis of valuable metabolites in Azolla.The metabolic plasticity of shikimate and phenylpropanoid pathways redirects carbon flow to different sink products in order to protect sessile plants from environmental stresses. This study assessed the biochemical responses of two Azolla species, A. filiculoides and A. pinnata, to the combined effects of environmental and nutritional stresses experienced while growing outdoors under Australian summer conditions. These stresses triggered a more than 2-fold increase in the production of total phenols and their representatives, anthocyanins (up to 18-fold), flavonoids (up to 4.7-fold), and condensed tannins (up to 2.7-fold), which led to intense red coloration of the leaves. These changes were also associated with an increase in the concentration of carbohydrates and a decrease in concentrations of lipids and total proteins. Changes in lipid biosynthesis did not cause significant changes in concentrations of palmitoleic acid (C16:0), linolenic acid (C18:3), and linoleic acid (C18:2), the fatty acid signatures of Azolla species. However, a reduction in protein production triggered changes in biosynthesis of alanine, arginine, leucine, tyrosine, threonine, valine, and methionine amino acids. Stress-triggered changes in key nutritional components, phenolics, lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates could have a significant impact on the nutritional value of both Azolla species, which are widely used as a sustainable food supplement for livestock, poultry, and fish industries.

Molecular identification and Morphological traits of the native and exotic Azolla species in Taiwan

Molecular identification and Morphological traits of the native and exotic Azolla species in Taiwan

A Review on the Use of Azolla Species in Poultry Production

A Review on the Use of Azolla Species in Poultry Production