Azokh Cave Research Articles

Exploring the Caves of Armenia by the First Official U.S. Caving Expedition (2007-2013)

The first U.S. caving expedition to Armenia, the South Caucasus, by NSS cavers took place in August 2007. Subsequent expeditions took place in 2010, 2011, and 2013, with additional trips planned for the future. The goal is the exploration and photo-documentation of the caves of Armenia, and to increase awareness of its underground realms. Although, in the past, there had been a few known caving expeditions to Armenia, overall little information existed. In addition, Armenia’s local caving community is small in number. As a result, this topic was studied and the first official US caving expedition to Armenia was organized in 2007. During the first expedition, four of Armenia’s significant natural caves were explored in the province of Vayots Dzor: Mozrov Cave, Arjeri Cave (Cave of the Bears), Mageli Cave, and Karmir Cave (Red Cave). Man-made caves were also visited. Subsequent trips to Armenia in 2010, 2011, and 2013 included (1) further exploration of Mozrov, Arjeri, and Mageli caves, (2) a cave trip to the neighboring independent Armenian Republic of Nagorno-Karabagh to explore Azokh Cave, and (3) the exploration of several caves in the northeast Armenian provinces of Tavush and Lori. Natural caves consisting of limestone, conglomerate, and lava were explored during these expeditions. Also, a number of man-made caves were visited, some of which were used as churches in centuries past. This article summarizes the four expeditions and discusses both the natural and man-made caves of Armenia. I beleive the article will be interesting to builders, gas pipelines and road engineers. In practice, it can be used by travel agencies and individual tourists, as well as by all lovers of underground monuments of nature and culture.

Palaeoecological reconstructions of the Middle to Late Pleistocene occupations in the Southern Caucasus using rodent assemblages

Located at the crossroads between Africa, Europe and Asia, the Southern Caucasus is a prime location to study occupations by H. heidelbergensis, H. neanderthalensis and anatomically modern humans. Azokh Cave is an important site for the understanding of human evolution in its archaeological, palaeontological, environmental and ecological context. The main objective of this work is to use rodents to infer the climatic and environmental conditions that prevailed during the formation of the site. The small-mammal remains come from the archaeological excavation campaigns carried out in Azokh 1 in 2003, 2005, 2014, 2015 and 2018; they are from Unit V, Units III–IV and Unit II. The small-mammal assemblage is composed of at least 13 taxa: seven arvicoline, two cricetine, two gerbilline, one dipodid and one murine species. Units III–IV do not yield enough material to draw palaeoclimatic inferences. The palaeoclimatic conditions for Units V and II, ascertained by means of the bioclimatic model, suggest temperatures and precipitation similar to nowadays; the climate seems to be relatively warm-temperate in both units. The palaeoenvironmental reconstruction by means of habitat weighting points to an environment mainly composed of desert and steppe habitats, as well as portions of grassland and forest. This interpretation differs from that inferred from the large-mammal and archaeobotanical data, which indicate a woodland environment. These differences could be explained by the origin of the accumulation. There was no evidence of a major palaeoenvironmental or palaeoclimatic change between the Middle and Late Pleistocene layers, indicating favourable conditions throughout the study period.

Results of a functional study on the Middle to early Upper Pleistocene lithic assemblages from the Azokh 1 Cave site (South Caucasus)

The study of the lithic artefacts exploited by early hominins and the manner in which they were used is a key aspect of lithic studies. Azokh Cave in the Southern Caucasus comprises a complete stratigraphic sequence of five archaeological units (Units V–I) and has yielded large Middle to early Upper Pleistocene lithic and faunal assemblages in association with hominin remains. The aim of this study was to evaluate the state of preservation of the lithic assemblages recovered from a marginal area at the rear of the cave and to test the feasibility of functionally analysing these artefacts. The study focused on a sample of archaeological pieces that at the macroscopic scale exhibit fresh surfaces and unaltered edges. These were analysed using various microscopes. The results obtained revealed that some archaeological artefacts from different units do preserve diagnostic use-wear traces. Microwear on the archaeological pieces and a comparison of that wear with experimental results enabled us to identify features related to longitudinal actions and the working of soft material, and those related to transversal actions and the working of hard material. Based on this information, we interpreted that these artefacts were used for activities related to butchery, hideworking, and at times, woodworking.

Chemical Alteration of Lithic Artefacts: an Experimental Case Study on the effect of Guano on Stone Flakes and Its Contextualization in the Archaeological Assemblage of Azokh Cave (Southern Caucasus)

Chemical weathering of archaeological material is well known; however, while there have been a number of experimental studies demonstrating different types and degrees of chemical alteration on faunal remains, little attention has been paid to stone tools, and the few studies that exist relate mainly to siliceous materials and water‐induced chemical alteration. Azokh Cave, located in the South Caucasus, contains a Middle Pleistocene to Holocene infill, and detailed macro‐ and microscopic examination of the lithic assemblages recovered there indicates potential chemical weathering of the stone artefacts. The cave is also currently home to one of the largest bat colonies in the region, and their guano forms a significant component of the infill of the inner galleries. Based on these two factors, an experimental pilot study was set up to artificially chemically alter a range of stone flakes produced specifically for the task, in order to determine the nature and likely cause of weathering. The experimental flakes, produced from different raw materials, were buried in fresh bat guano for up to two years. The results reported herein demonstrate that in a relatively short time, the highly acidic composition of bat guano strongly affects calcium‐bearing rocks (e.g., limestone, basalt) altering their entire surface. Similar comparisons may be made with chemical alteration evident on archaeological lithics from Azokh Cave, suggesting that bat guano has played a significant role in diagenetic alteration.

РАСПРОСТРАНЕНИЕ И ЭКОЛОГИЯ ОБЫКНОВЕННОГО ДЛИННОКРЫЛА (MINIOPTERUS SCHREIBERSI) В РЕСПУБЛИКЕ АРЦАХ

The paper presents the data obtained as a result of long-term studies of the common bentwing bat (Miniopterus schreibersi (Khul, 1819)) in the Republic of Artsakh. Data on ecology, biology and activity of these animals are given, special attention was paid to the population inhabiting the Azokh cave. In addition, the sex ratio in different populations was studied, and the average life span of these bats was also determined.

Lithic assemblages of Azokh Cave (Nagorno Karabagh, Lesser Caucasus): Raw materials, technology and regional context

Azokh Cave is a Middle Pleistocene to Holocene site located in Nagorno Karabagh (Lesser Caucasus). The main entrance, Azokh 1, is a large cave that has two geological sequences (lower and upper) with nine geo-archaeological units of which only the upper ones (Units I to V) have a significant archaeological record. The faunal remains and lithic artefacts in these units indicate aspects of human occupation, and exploitation of, and association with animals. The lithic artefacts presented here were recovered from Units V, III and II during the 2002 – 2009 excavation seasons. The available chronological data indicates an age between 293 – 100 Ka for these units. The operational chain is incomplete and artefacts found in the cave are primarily end-products dominated by flake-tools. The assemblage of Unit V is composed primarily of simple, unretouched flakes with a minimal presence of retouched flakes and cores. The Unit II lithic assemblage includes a substantial Levallois component, although with fewer cores and retouched flakes. There are very few flake tools in Unit III. While it is still difficult to assign the Unit V assemblage to a techno-typological group or complex (i.e. Acheulean, Mousterian or other local techno-complexes such as the Kudarian), the Unit II assemblage is clearly associated with Mode 3 or the Mousterian techno-complex.Different local and non-local raw materials were exploited in all units for the production of lithic artefacts, although the range of raw materials is more varied in Unit II. Local chert, flint and basalt were used most commonly, probably due to their easy accessibility. Limestone, jasper and sandstone, from local and non-local sources, are present in small quantities in Units V and II. Obsidian is the only raw material that possibly originates from more distant sources. Flint and chert appear to have been preferentially exploited for flake tool production in all units, but the toolmakers show a preference for better quality raw material (flint, basalt, obsidian) for retouched pieces in Units V and II, and for Levallois production in Unit II.

Reality and confusion in the recognition of post-depositional alterations and use-wear: an experimental approach on basalt tools

While many experimental studies have been done on siliceous and metamorphic rocks for both use-wear and post depositional surface modification (PDSM) events, little is known about such experiments on volcanic materials (other than obsidian), and on basalt in particular. Here we present the preliminary results of several experiments related to: a) evidence for basalt use (e.g., butchery and fresh hide scraping) and the subsequent characteristic use-wear patterns that can be seen; and b) post-depositional surface modifications caused by bear ( Ursidae ) trampling on experimental basalt flakes and subsequent use of these flakes for a tumbling experiment in a special tumbling machine. The results of these experiments were compared to better understand some surface modifications noted on the Middle to Upper Pleistocene lithic assemblages of the Azokh Cave site (Nagorno Karabagh, Lesser Caucasus). Although some aspects of both events (use-wear and PDSM) remain to be studied in depth, the experiments have improved our understanding of the effects of use-wear and post-depositional trampling and tumbling on basalt lithic artefacts. In particular, it has allowed us to recognise mechanical alterations (e.g., cracks, striations, fractures, edge damage) caused by trampling and tumbling and to note differences between these modifications and those caused by use. In particular, the experiments have shown that macroscopic modifications are rarely diagnostic, especially those observed after use. Microscopic wear features such as edge rounding, polish, abrasion and striations were the most evident types of alteration on basalt flakes, although occurring at different times and from different types of use. Distribution and orientation of alterations may be key in distinguishing use-wear from post-depositional alterations on basalt artefacts.

PLEISTOCENE TO HOLOCENE STRATIGRAPHY OF AZOKH 1 CAVE, LESSER CAUCASUS

Azokh Cave is located in the southern Caucasus and contains a Pleistocene and Holocene sediment infill. The site is significant due to its geographic location at an important migratory route-way between the African subcontinent and Eurasia, and the recovery of Middle Pleistocene hominid remains in the sedimentary sequence during a previous phase of excavation. The stratigraphy of the largest of the cave's entrance passages, Azokh 1, is described in full in this paper for the first time. It is broadly divisible into nine units. Our investigations have shown that the stratigraphy splits between two spatially isolated sequences. The upper of these two sequences has proven to be fossiliferous and has yielded many types of mammal (macro and micro) fossils as well as evidence for human occupation. The base of this fossiliferous (upper) sequence is dated at around 300ka whilst the uppermost level appears to be largely confined to the Holocene (≈150 years BP).

PLEISTOCENE TO HOLOCENE STRATIGRAPHY OF AZOKH 1 CAVE, LESSER CAUCASUS

Azokh Cave is located in the southern Caucasus and contains a Pleistocene and Holocene sediment infill. The site is significant due to its geographic location at an important migratory route-way between the African subcontinent and Eurasia, and the recovery of Middle Pleistocene hominid remains in the sedimentary sequence during a previous phase of excavation. The stratigraphy of the largest of the cave's entrance passages, Azokh 1, is described in full in this paper for the first time. It is broadly divisible into nine units. Our investigations have shown that the stratigraphy splits between two spatially isolated sequences. The upper of these two sequences has proven to be fossiliferous and has yielded many types of mammal (macro and micro) fossils as well as evidence for human occupation. The base of this fossiliferous (upper) sequence is dated at around 300ka whilst the uppermost level appears to be largely confined to the Holocene (≈150 years bp).© 2010 Royal Irish Academy.

PLEISTOCENE TO HOLOCENE STRATIGRAPHY OF AZOKH 1 CAVE, LESSER CAUCASUS

Azokh Cave is located in the southern Caucasus and contains a Pleistocene and Holocene sediment infill. The site is significant due to its geographic location at an important migratory route-way between the African subcontinent and Eurasia, and the recovery of Middle Pleistocene hominid remains in the sedimentary sequence during a previous phase of excavation. The stratigraphy of the largest of the cave's entrance passages, Azokh 1, is described in full in this paper for the first time. It is broadly divisible into nine units. Our investigations have shown that the stratigraphy splits between two spatially isolated sequences. The upper of these two sequences has proven to be fossiliferous and has yielded many types of mammal (macro and micro) fossils as well as evidence for human occupation. The base of this fossiliferous (upper) sequence is dated at around 300ka whilst the uppermost level appears to be largely confined to the Holocene (≈150 years BP).

The Azokh Cave complex: Middle Pleistocene to Holocene human occupation in the Caucasus

Azokh Cave is located near the village of the same name in the Nagorno-Karabagh region of the south-eastern part of the Lesser Caucasus (3937.09’ N and 4659.19’ E, 962 metres –a.s.l.). Azokh Cave and other relevant Acheulian sites in the Caucasus (Fig. 1) were described by Lioubine (2002). Together with Mousterian sites (Klein, 1969, 1999; Hoffecker and Cleghorn, 2000; Hoffecker, 2002; Stringer and Andrews, 2005) and sites producing evidence of the Middle-Late Palaeolithic transition (Joris and Adler 2008), the Caucasus region has provided evidence of continuous human settlement of the area throughout the Pleistocene. The geographical location of these sites indicates the persistence of a natural corridor that Lioubine (2002) named the ‘Caucasus isthmus’ and which we describe as the Trans-Caucasian corridor. Based on a geological survey of Quaternary deposits in collaboration with the Armenian Academy of Sciences (Ferna´ndez-Jalvo et al., 2004; King et al., 2003), we observe that the topography of the area has changed considerably due to tectonic compression and periglacial isostasy. This is in agreement with estimations by GPS studies (Mosar, 2006, Mosar et al., 2007) and ESR (Gru¨n et al., 1999) that establishedan uplift rate of12 to14 mm/year or 0.8–1.0 cm/year, respectively. The corridor has changed greatly since the middle Pleistocene, with uplift and erosion altering the landscape, but it is likely that passage through the Caucasian mountains has always been possible. The Trans-Caucasian corridor and other routes via Turkey and towards Asia (Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen, 2001) were migration pathways during the Pleistocene. Fossil humans in the Caucasian area are scarce. The site of Dmanisi in Georgia yielded the earliest known Eurasian hominins (1.7 Ma, Gabunia et al., 2000; Rightmire et al., 2006; Martino´ n- Torres et al., 2008). Late surviving Neanderthals are present at several sites: Mezmaiskaya Cave, in the Northern Caucasus of Russia (30 ka, Skinner et al., 2005), provided remains of late surviving Neanderthals; a mandible of a 2–3 year old Neanderthal child was found at Barakay Cave (North Caucasus; Lubin et al., 2002). Two incisor fragments and one premolar from Kudaro I may be human (Lioubine, 2002). In this context, Azokh Cave fills an important temporal gap. Azokh Cave contains a nearly continuous stratigraphic section from >300 ka to the present, and mandible fragments of Homo heidelbergensis found at the site (Kasimova, 2001) represent the easternmost extent of this species. Here we review the finds of this long forgotten site and present results of our recent work.