Avian Plasmodium Research Articles

Are the Culex pipiens biotypes pipiens, molestus and their hybrids competent vectors of avian Plasmodium?

The common house mosquito Culex pipiens s.l., widely distributed in Europe, Africa, and North America has two recognized biotypes, Cx. pipiens biotype pipiens and Cx. pipiens biotype molestus, which hybridize. Despite their morphological similarities, these biotypes may exhibit ecological differences. This complex ecological mosaic may affect the interaction of Cx. pipiens with pathogens like avian Plasmodium, which is transmitted to wildlife. Although the vector competence for Cx. pipiens biotype molestus has been well studied, there is a lack of studies comparing the vector competence of Cx. pipiens biotype pipiens and their hybrids for the transmission of avian Plasmodium. Here, we evaluated the vector competence of the Cx. pipiens biotypes pipiens, molestus and their hybrids for the transmission of two avian Plasmodium species. Mosquitoes were allowed to feed on blood of wild infected birds and the presence of DNA of Plasmodium in head-thorax and saliva of mosquitoes was molecularly evaluated at 13 day-post exposure. The transmission rates (i.e., the detection of parasite DNA in mosquito saliva) for Plasmodium cathemerium were similar for the two biotypes of Cx. pipiens and their hybrids while Plasmodium relictum DNA was only found in the saliva of Cx. pipiens biotype pipiens. In addition, P. cathemerium was significantly more prevalent than P. relictum in the saliva of Cx. pipiens biotype pipiens. Our results suggest that avian Plasmodium is transmitted by both Cx. pipiens biotypes and their hybrids although differences could be found depending of the parasite species studied. Differences in the abundance of each biotype and their hybrids within areas characterized by distinct environmental conditions, along with variations in their blood-feeding patterns and the parasites infecting birds, could ultimately determine differences in the relevance of each Cx. pipiens biotype in the transmission of avian Plasmodium.

Location and timing of infection drives a sex-bias in Haemoproteus prevalence in a hole-nesting bird.

Sex biases in prevalence of disease are often attributed to intrinsic factors, such as physiological differences while a proximate role of extrinsic factors such as behavioural or ecological differences may be more difficult to establish. We combined large-scale screening for the presence and lineage identity of avian malaria (haemosporidian) parasites, in 1234 collared flycatchers (Ficedula albicollis) with life-history information from each bird to establish the location and timing of infection. We found an overall infection rate of 36.2% ± 0.03 (95% CI) with 25 distinct malaria lineages. Interestingly, first-year breeding males and females had similar infection prevalence while females accrued a significantly higher infection rate than males later in life. The sex difference in infection rate was driven by the most abundant Haemoproteus, lineage, hPHSIB1, while the infection rate of Plasmodium lineages was similar in males and females. Furthermore, when infections were assigned to an apparent transmission location, we found that the sex difference in infection rate trend was driven by lineages transmitted in Europe, more specifically by one lineage (the hPHSIB1), while no similar pattern was found in African lineages. We deduce that the observed infection patterns are likely to be caused by differences in breeding behaviour, with incubating females (and nestling individuals of both sexes) being easy targets for the biting insects that are the vectors of avian malaria parasites. Overall, our results are most consistent with ecological factors rather than intrinsic factors underlying the observed sex-biased infection rate of avian malaria in collared flycatchers.

Parasite Abundance‐Occupancy Relationships Across Biogeographic Regions: Joint Effects of Niche Breadth, Host Availability and Climate

ABSTRACTAimChanging biodiversity and environmental conditions may allow multi‐host pathogens to spread among host species and affect prevalence. There are several widely acknowledged theories about mechanisms that may influence variation in pathogen prevalence, including the controversially debated dilution effect and abundance‐occupancy relationship hypotheses. Here, we explore such abundance‐occupancy relationships for unique lineages of three vector‐borne avian blood parasite genera (the avian malaria parasite Plasmodium and the related haemosporidian parasites Parahaemoproteus and Leucocytozoon) across biogeographical regions.LocationNearctic‐Neotropical and Palearctic‐Afrotropical regions.MethodsWe compiled a cross‐continental dataset of 17,116 bird individuals surveyed from 46 bird assemblages across the Nearctic‐Neotropical and Palearctic‐Afrotropical regions and explored relationships between local parasite lineage prevalence and host assemblage metrics in a Bayesian random regression framework.ResultsMost lineages from these three genera infected ≥ 5 host species and exhibited clear phylogenetic or functional host specificity. Lineage prevalence from all three genera increased with host range, but also with higher degrees of specialisation to phylogenetically or functionally related host species. Local avian community features were also found to be important drivers of prevalence. For example, bird species richness was positively correlated with lineage prevalence for Plasmodium and Leucocytozoon, whereas higher relative abundances of the main host species were associated with lower prevalence for Plasmodium and Parahaemoproteus but higher prevalence for Leucocytozoon.ConclusionsOur results broadly support several of the leading hypotheses about mechanisms that influence pathogen prevalence, including the niche breadth hypothesis in that higher avian host species diversity and broader host range amplify prevalence through increasing ecological opportunities and the trade‐off hypotheses in that specialisation among subsets of available host species may increase prevalence. Furthermore, the three studied avian haemosporidian genera exhibited different abundance‐occupancy relationships across the major global climate gradients and in relation to host availability, emphasising that these relationships do not strictly follow common rules for vector‐borne parasites with different life histories.

Genomic variation in Plasmodium relictum (lineage SGS1) and its implications for avian malaria infection outcomes: insights from experimental infections and genome-wide analysis

BackgroundThe globally transmitted avian malaria parasite Plasmodium relictum (lineage SGS1) has been found to infect hundreds of different bird species with differences in infection outcomes ranging from more or less latent to potentially mortal. However, to date basic knowledge about the links between genetic differentiation and variation in infection outcome within this single malaria parasite species is lacking.MethodsIn this study, two different isolates of SGS1, obtained in the wild from two different host species, were used to investigate differences in their development in the blood and virulence in the experimentally infected canaries. Simultaneously, 258 kb of the parasite genome was screened for genetic differences using parasite mRNA and compared between experimental groups.ResultsThe two isolates showed differences in development and caused mortality as well as effects on the blood parameters of their hosts. Although previous studies using single genes have shown very limited within lineage genetic diversity in the European population of SGS1, 226 SNPs were found across 322 genes, which separated the two experimental groups with a total of 23 SNPs that were fixed in either of the experimental groups. Moreover, genetic variation was found within each experimental group, hinting that each avian malaria infection harbours standing genetic variation that might be selected during each individual infection episode.ConclusionThese results highlight extensive genetic variation within the SGS1 population that is transferred into individual infections, thus adding to the complexity of the infection dynamics seen in these host–parasite interactions. Simultaneously, the results open up the possibility of understanding how genetic variation within the parasite populations is linked to the commonly observed differences in infection outcomes, both in experimental settings and in the wild.Graphical

Does host migration affect host-parasite interaction? Migrant birds harbor exclusive parasites but have similar roles in parasite-host networks.

Parasites comprise a substantial portion of global biodiversity and play critical roles in shaping ecosystems by modulating trophic networks and affecting their hosts' abundance and distribution. The dynamics of host migration introduce new complexity to these relationships. From the host perspective, migratory behavior can either act as a defense mechanism or augment exposure to a broader spectrum of pathogens. Conversely, for parasites, host migration represents a mechanism for their dispersion and an opportunity to infect new host species. This study investigates the complex interplay between migration and parasite-host interactions, focusing on the interaction between hosts and avian malaria and malaria-like parasites in the Brazilian Atlantic Rain Forest. We captured 1466 birds representing 70 different species, uncovering 322 infections with Plasmodium/Haemoproteus parasites. We observed variations in migration timing and fluctuations in host abundance across months. By comparing the observed patterns of interaction of migratory and non-migratory birds to patterns of interaction expected at random, we show that migration affects the roles hosts take in the parasite-host network. Interestingly, despite the fact migratory species hosted more exclusive and distinct parasites, migrants did not occupy central network positions, which are mostly occupied by resident birds. Overall, we highlight the role of resident birds as a key species within parasite-host communities and the high specialization among avian haemosporidians and their hosts.

First Records of Feather Mites and Haemosporidian Parasites in the Isabelline Wheatear (Oenanthe isabellina) from the Westernmost Part of the Species Breeding Range

Host range expansions are an important factor for shaping the community of associated symbiotic organisms. Birds, as a highly mobile group of animals, are of particular interest to study with respect to the diversity and the distribution of the organisms using them as hosts during such large-scale movements. The Isabelline wheatear (Oenanthe isabellina) is a species with a main breeding area in Asia, which has expanded west, towards the Balkans, since the middle of the last century. We collected feather mites and blood samples for haemosporidian parasites screening from adult and juvenile Isabelline wheatears from the westernmost edge of the species breeding area in western Bulgaria. The feather mite species Alaudicola rosickyi (Černy, 1963), previously found on other wheatear species, was found for the first time on Isabelline wheatears. One species of avian malaria parasites—Plasmodium relictum (Grassi and Feletti, 1891) (lineage SGS1)—represented the first record of a malaria parasite in this host species in Europe. Increasing the sampling in the South European populations of the species will shed light on blood parasite species diversity and will reveal if other feather mite species have followed their host during its breeding range expansion.

A Literature Review on the Role of the Invasive Aedes albopictus in the Transmission of Avian Malaria Parasites.

The Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) is an invasive mosquito species with a global distribution. This species has populations established in most continents, being considered one of the 100 most dangerous invasive species. Invasions of mosquitoes such as Ae. albopictus could facilitate local transmission of pathogens, impacting the epidemiology of some mosquito-borne diseases. Aedes albopictus is a vector of several pathogens affecting humans, including viruses such as dengue virus, Zika virus and Chikungunya virus, as well as parasites such as Dirofilaria. However, information about its competence for the transmission of parasites affecting wildlife, such as avian malaria parasites, is limited. In this literature review, we aim to explore the current knowledge about the relationships between Ae. albopictus and avian Plasmodium to understand the role of this mosquito species in avian malaria transmission. The prevalence of avian Plasmodium in field-collected Ae. albopictus is generally low, although studies have been conducted in a small proportion of the affected countries. In addition, the competence of Ae. albopictus for the transmission of avian malaria parasites has been only proved for certain Plasmodium morphospecies under laboratory conditions. Therefore, Ae. albopictus may play a minor role in avian Plasmodium transmission in the wild, likely due to its mammal-biased blood-feeding pattern and its reduced competence for the development of different avian Plasmodium. However, further studies considering other avian Plasmodium species and lineages circulating under natural conditions should be carried out to properly assess the vectorial role of Ae. albopictus for the Plasmodium species naturally circulating in its distribution range.

Surveillance for Selected Pathogens and Parasites of Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) from Western Oklahoma, USA, 2018-20.

The Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) has been undergoing a range-wide population decline. Potential causes for declines across its historic range have been investigated for decades and include habitat loss and fragmentation and a variety of parasitic and infectious diseases. Although there have been studies on bobwhite ecology in Oklahoma, USA, relatively little is known about parasites and pathogens in the region. We evaluated the health of free-ranging bobwhites from nine sites in western Oklahoma. From 2018 to 2020, 206 bobwhites were evaluated for gross and microscopic lesions and tested for selected pathogens. In general, bobwhites were in good nutritional condition with ample muscle mass and fat stores. No significant gross lesions were observed in any bobwhite and no significant histologic lesions were detected in a subset. There was no evidence of infection with or exposure to reticuloendotheliosis virus, West Nile virus, respiratory Mycoplasmataceae species, Pasteurella multocida, intestinal Eimeria spp., or oral Trichomonas spp. Several pathogens of potential concern were detected, including avian adenovirus (8.6%), Toxoplasma gondii (2.3%), and haemosporidians (a Haemoproteus sp. (1.5%), Leucocytozoon schoutedeni (1.5%), and Plasmodium homopolare haplotype 2 [lineage LAIRI01; 3.6%]). Physaloptera sp. (12%) and Sarcocystis sp. (1%) were detected in the breast muscle. Low intraspecific genetic diversity was noted for Physaloptera sp., and sequences were most similar to Physaloptera sequences from bobwhites and grasshoppers (Orthoptera) in Texas. Low intensities of chewing lice, chiggers, and ticks were observed. A subset of bobwhites had evidence of exposure to selected toxicants and heavy metals; a small number had low levels of iron, manganese, zinc, molybdenum, and copper, which were not considered diagnostically relevant. In general, bobwhites from western Oklahoma appeared to be in good health with a low diversity of pathogens detected, but future work is needed to understand potentially changing disease risks for this population.

New insight into avian malaria vectors in New Zealand

BackgroundMosquitoes (Culicidae) are vectors for most malaria parasites of the Plasmodium species and are required for Plasmodium spp. to complete their life cycle. Despite having 16 species of mosquitoes and the detection of many Plasmodium species in birds, little is known about the role of different mosquito species in the avian malaria life cycle in New Zealand.MethodsIn this study, we used nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and real-time PCR to determine Plasmodium spp. prevalence and diversity of mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences in wild-caught mosquitoes sampled across ten sites on the North Island of New Zealand during 2012–2014. The mosquitoes were pooled by species and location collected, and the thorax and abdomens were examined separately for Plasmodium spp. DNA. Akaike information criterion (AIC) modeling was used to test whether location, year of sampling, and mosquito species were significant predictors of minimum infection rates (MIR).ResultsWe collected 788 unengorged mosquitoes of six species, both native and introduced. The most frequently caught mosquito species were the introduced Aedes notoscriptus and the native Culex pervigilans. Plasmodium sp DNA was detected in 37% of matched thorax and abdomen pools. When considered separately, 33% of abdomen and 23% of thorax pools tested positive by nested PCR. The MIR of the positive thorax pools from introduced mosquito species was 1.79% for Ae. notoscriptus and 0% for Cx. quinquefasciatus, while the MIR for the positive thorax pools of native mosquito species was 4.9% for Cx. pervigilans and 0% for Opifex fuscus. For the overall MIR, site and mosquito species were significant predictors of Plasmodium overall MIR. Aedes notoscriptus and Cx. pervigilans were positive for malaria DNA in the thorax samples, indicating that they may play a role as avian malaria vectors. Four different Plasmodium lineages (SYAT05, LINN1, GRW6, and a new lineage of P (Haemamoeba) sp. AENOT11) were identified in the pooled samples.ConclusionsThis is the first detection of avian Plasmodium DNA extracted from thoraxes of native Culex and introduced Aedes mosquito species in New Zealand and therefore the first study providing an indication of potential vectors in this country.Graphical

RNAscope in situ hybridization reveals microvascular sequestration of Plasmodium relictum pSGS1 blood stages but absence of exo-erythrocytic dormant stages during latent infection of Serinus canaria

BackgroundBirds chronically infected with avian malaria parasites often show relapses of parasitaemia after latent stages marked by absence of parasites in the peripheral circulation. These relapses are assumed to result from the activation of dormant exo-erythrocytic stages produced during secondary (post-erythrocytic) merogony of avian Plasmodium spp. Yet, there is no morphological proof of persistent or dormant tissue stages in the avian host during latent infections. This study investigated persistence of Plasmodium relictum pSGS1 in birds with latent infections during winter, with the goal to detect presumed persisting tissue stages using a highly sensitive RNAscope® in situ hybridization technology.MethodsFourteen domestic canaries were infected with P. relictum pSGS1 by blood-inoculation in spring, and blood films examined during the first 4 months post infection, and during winter and spring of the following year. After parasitaemia was no longer detectable, half of the birds were dissected, and tissue samples investigated for persisting tissue stages using RNAscope ISH and histology. The remaining birds were blood-checked and dissected after re-appearance of parasitaemia, and their tissues equally examined.ResultsSystematic examination of tissues showed no exo-erythrocytic stages in birds exhibiting latent infections by blood-film microscopy, indicating absence of dormant tissue stages in P. relictum pSGS1-infected canaries. Instead, RNAscope ISH revealed rare P. relictum blood stages in capillaries of various tissues and organs, demonstrating persistence of the parasites in the microvasculature. Birds examined after re-appearance of parasitemia showed higher numbers of P. relictum blood stages in both capillaries and larger blood vessels, indicating replication during early spring and re-appearance in the peripheral circulation.ConclusionsThe findings suggest that persistence of P. relictum pSGS1 during latent infection is mediated by continuous low-level erythrocytic merogony and possibly tissue sequestration of infected blood cells. Re-appearance of parasitaemia in spring seems to result from increased erythrocytic merogony, therefore representing recrudescence and not relapse in blood-inoculated canaries. Further, the study highlights strengths and limitations of the RNAscope ISH technology for the detection of rare parasite stages in tissues, providing directions for future research on persistence and tissue sequestration of avian malaria and related haemosporidian parasites.

First experimental observation on biology of the avian malaria parasite Plasmodium (Novyella) homonucleophilum (lineage pSW2), with remarks on virulence and distribution

Species of subgenus Novyella remain most fragmentarily studied amongst avian malaria agents. Transmission of the recently described Plasmodium (Novyella) homonucleophilum (lineage pSW2) occurs broadly in the Old World, including Europe, however biology of this pathogen remains insufficiently investigated. This study provided the first data on the development of P. homonucleophilum in the experimentally infected Eurasian siskins Spinus spinus exposed by inoculation of infected blood. The parasite strain was isolated from a naturally infected song thrush Turdus philomelos, multiplied in vivo, and inoculated to six Eurasian siskins. The same number of birds were used as negative controls. All exposed birds were susceptible, and the controls remained uninfected during the entire study (172 days). Prepatent period was 8–12 days post exposure (dpe). Maximum parasitaemia reached 50–90 % of infected erythrocytes between 20 and 44 dpe. Then, parasitaemia decreased but remained relatively high during the entire observation. Three of six exposed birds died, indicating high virulence of this infection. The parasitaemia increase coincided with a decline of haematocrit value, indicating anaemia. Polychromasia was evident in all infected birds but not in controls. Body mass of exposed birds increased, coinciding with increased food intake. The latter probably is an adaptation to compensate energy loss of hosts due to the long-lasting parasitism. Exo-erythrocytic stages were not found, suggesting that long-lasting parasitaemia was entirely due to erythrocytic merogony. The lineage pSW2 has been reported broadly in the Old World and is likely a generalist infection. Neglected avian Novyella malaria parasites are worth more attention of researchers due to their cosmopolitan distribution and high virulence.

Landscape and mosquito community impact the avian Plasmodium infection in Culex pipiens

Avian malaria parasites provide an important model for studying host-pathogen interactions, yet understanding their dynamics in vectors under natural conditions is limited. We investigated the effect of vector abundance, species richness and diversity, and habitat characteristics on avian Plasmodium prevalence and lineage richness in Culex pipiens across 45 urban, natural, and rural localities in southern Spain. Analyzing 16,574 mosquitoes grouped in 768 mosquito pools, 32.7% exhibited parasite presence. 13 different Plasmodium lineages were identified, with the lineage SYAT05 being the most commonly found. Parasite prevalence positively correlated with the distance to saltmarshes and rivers, but negatively with the distance to total water source. Parasite lineage diversity was higher in natural than in rural areas and positively correlated with mosquito species richness. These results emphasize the complex dynamics of avian Plasmodium in the wild, with habitat characteristics and vector community driving the parasite transmission by mosquito vectors.

Mitochondrial and apicoplast genome copy abundances of haemosporidian parasites are explained by host species and parasitic lineage

Endosymbiotic organelles, such as mitochondria and plastids, contain own remnant genomes (nucleoids), whose variable abundance in cells may be adaptive to the physiological necessities and functions of the cells. Unicellular apicomplexan parasites contain one mitochondrium and one apicoplast with variable genome copy numbers. We measured the abundance of mitochondrial, apicoplast and nuclear genome copies in a set of avian blood samples infected with haemosporidian blood parasites, belonging to the three main genera Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon. We designed general primers suitable for qPCR, amplifying fragments of the mitogenome, plastome and nuclear genomes of avian malaria and related haemosporidian parasites. We measured the amplification of these fragments in 153 samples of 23 avian host species and infected with 33 parasitic lineages. We estimate on average several hundred mitochondrial genome copies and several tens of apicoplast copies per haploid gametocyte cell with substantial variation among samples. Host species appeared to differ in their mitogenome abundance while parasitic lineages differed in plastome abundance per cell (per nuclear copy signal). We did not find consistent differences between parasite genera or higher avian taxa. Parasite lineages and host bird species did not differ consistently in infection intensity, estimated from parasite to host nuclear signals, which may indicate that samples were taken at different stages of infection. However, this and similar results remain to be cross-validated with in-situ imaging techniques. The novel molecular tools introduced here offer avenues for the characterization of nucleoid abundance of haemosporidian parasites over environmental conditions and parasitic developmental stages. Such measures will improve our understanding of parasite physiology, ecology, the coadaptation and coevolution with hosts and suggest possible augmentations to standard methods in the research field.

Avian Plasmodium in invasive and native mosquitoes from southern Spain

BackgroundThe emergence of diseases of public health concern is enhanced by factors associated with global change, such as the introduction of invasive species. The Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus), considered a competent vector of different viruses and parasites, has been successfully introduced into Europe in recent decades. Molecular screening of parasites in mosquitoes (i.e. molecular xenomonitoring) is essential to understand the potential role of different native and invasive mosquito species in the local circulation of vector-borne parasites affecting both humans and wildlife.MethodsThe presence of avian Plasmodium parasites was molecularly tested in mosquitoes trapped in five localities with different environmental characteristics in southern Spain from May to November 2022. The species analyzed included the native Culex pipiens and Culiseta longiareolata and the invasive Ae. albopictus.ResultsAvian Plasmodium DNA was only found in Cx. pipiens with 31 positive out of 165 mosquito pools tested. None of the Ae. albopictus or Cs. longiareolata pools were positive for avian malaria parasites. Overall, eight Plasmodium lineages were identified, including a new lineage described here. No significant differences in parasite prevalence were found between localities or sampling sessions.ConclusionsUnlike the invasive Ae. albopictus, Cx. pipiens plays a key role in the transmission of avian Plasmodium in southern Spain. However, due to the recent establishment of Ae. albopictus in the area, further research on the role of this species in the local transmission of vector-borne pathogens with different reservoirs is required.Graphical

Overview of Plasmodium spp. and Animal Models in Malaria Research.

Malaria is a parasitic disease caused by protozoan species of the genus Plasmodium and transmitted by female mosquitos of the genus Anopheles and other Culicidae. Most of the parasites of the genus Plasmodium are highly species specific with more than 200 species described affecting different species of mammals, birds, and reptiles. Plasmodium species strictly affecting humans are P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, and P. malariae. More recently, P. knowlesi and other nonhuman primate plasmodia were found to naturally infect humans. Currently, malaria occurs mostly in poor tropical and subtropical areas of the world, and in many of these countries it is the leading cause of illness and death. For more than 100 y, animal models, have played a major role in our understanding of malaria biology. Avian Plasmodium species were the first to be used as models to study human malaria. Malaria parasite biology and immunity were first studied using mainly P. gallinaceum and P. relictum. Rodent malarias, particularly P. berghei and P. yoelii, have been used extensively as models to study malaria in mammals. Several species of Plasmodium from nonhuman primates have been used as surrogate models to study human malaria immunology, pathogenesis, candidate vaccines, and treatments. Plasmodium cynomolgi, P. simiovale, and P. fieldi are important models for studying malaria produced by P. vivax and P. ovale, while P. coatneyi is used as a model for study- ing severe malaria. Other nonhuman primate malarias used in research are P. fragile, P. inui, P. knowlesi, P. simium, and P. brasilianum. Very few nonhuman primate species can develop an infection with human malarias. Macaques in general are resistant to infection with P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae, and P. ovale. Only apes and a few species of New World monkeys can support infection with human malarias. Herein we review the most common, and some less common, avian, reptile, and mammal plasmodia species used as models to study human malaria.

Unravelling the mosquito-haemosporidian parasite-bird host network in the southwestern Iberian Peninsula: insights into malaria infections, mosquito community and feeding preferences.

Vector-borne diseases affecting humans, wildlife and livestock have significantly increased their incidence and distribution in the last decades. Because the interaction among vectors-parasite-vertebrate hosts plays a key role driving vector-borne disease transmission, the analyses of the diversity and structure of vector-parasite networks and host-feeding preference may help to assess disease risk. Also, the study of seasonal variations in the structure and composition of vector and parasite communities may elucidate the current patterns of parasite persistence and spread as well as facilitate prediction of how climate variations may impact vector-borne disease transmission. Avian malaria and related haemosporidian parasites constitute an exceptional model to understand the ecology and evolution of vector-borne diseases. However, the characterization of vector-haemosporidian parasite-bird host assemblages is largely unknown in many regions. Here, we analyzed 5859 female mosquitoes captured from May to November in five localities from southwestern Spain to explore the composition and seasonal variation of the vector-parasite-vertebrate host network. We showed a gradual increase in mosquito abundance, peaking in July. A total of 16 different haemosporidian lineages were found infecting 13 mosquito species. Of these assemblages, more than 70% of these vector-parasite associations have not been described in previous studies. Moreover, three Haemoproteus lineages were reported for the first time in this study. The prevalence of avian malaria infections in mosquitoes varied significantly across the months, reaching a maximum in November. Mosquito blood-feeding preference was higher for mammals (62.5%), whereas 37.5% of vectors fed on birds, suggesting opportunistic feeding behavior. These outcomes improve our understanding of disease transmission risk and help tovector control strategies.

Prevalence and diversity of avian malaria parasites in illegally traded white‐winged parakeets in Peruvian Amazonas

AbstractIllegal or poorly regulated wildlife trade may enhance parasite spread worldwide, leading to pathogen outbreaks and the emergence of diseases affecting native wildlife, domestic animals and humans. The order Psittaciformes has the largest proportion of endangered species among all birds worldwide and is one of the most trafficked taxa in the pet trade. However, despite the large number of parrot species commercialized worldwide, the influence of illegally traded wild birds on the introduction of exotic pathogens is still poorly investigated. Here we molecularly examined the prevalence and genetic diversity of haemosporidian parasites in illegally traded white‐winged parakeets (Brotogeris versicolurus), one of the most trafficked parrots in South America. We found that 18.5% of parakeets harboured Plasmodium relictum GRW04, a highly invasive malaria parasite provoking population decline and even extinctions in native avifauna when established outside its natural range. We also showed that malaria infected birds have lower body condition than uninfected parakeets, revealing the negative effects of malaria on their avian hosts. These outcomes highlight the risk of malaria spill over and disease outbreak in illegally traded wildlife. Our results also reveal epidemiological key concepts in disease transmission, such as the role of poorly studied parrot species as natural reservoir hosts of haemosporidians. These findings stress the importance of enforcing health control regulations and trade policies to fight wildlife trafficking effectively.

Avian Plasmodium spp. and Haemoproteus spp. parasites in mosquitoes in Germany

BackgroundAlthough haemosporidian parasites may cause considerable health and economic problems in aviaries, there is limited understanding of the vectors transmitting them. Mosquito-borne Plasmodium species are responsible for the deaths of numerous exotic (= immunologically naïve) birds in zoos every year, while native birds are adapted to the parasites and largely protected by an effective immune response.MethodsMosquitoes were collected in bird/animal parks, wetlands and private gardens in various regions of Germany from 2020 to 2022. Females were pooled with up to 10 specimens according to taxon, location and date. Extracted DNA was screened for avian Haemosporida-specific mitochondrial rDNA using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Positive samples were amplified by a Plasmodium/Haemoproteus-specific nested PCR targeting the partial cytochrome b gene, followed by sequencing of the PCR product for species identification. Sequences were checked against GenBank and MalAvi databases.ResultsPCR of 2633 pools with 8834 female mosquitoes signalled infection with Plasmodium in 46 pools and with Haemoproteus in one pool. Further amplification and sequencing demonstrated the occurrence of Haemoproteus majoris lineage PARUS1 (n = 1) as well as several Plasmodium species and lineages, including Plasmodium relictum SGS1 (n = 16) and GRW11 (n = 1), P. matutinum LINN1 (n = 13), P. vaughani SYAT05 (n = 10), P. circumflexum TURDUS01 (n = 3), P. cathemerium PADOM02 (n = 1) and Plasmodium sp. SYBOR02 (n = 1) and PLOPRI01 (n = 1). The infections were detected in Culex pipiens sensu lato (n = 40), Culiseta morsitans/fumipennis (n = 6) and Aedes cinereus/geminus (n = 1).ConclusionsAlthough the overall Plasmodium minimum infection rate (5.2) appears to be low, the results demonstrated not only the ongoing circulation of Plasmodium parasites in the German mosquito population, but also the occurrence of eight distinct Plasmodium lineages, with three of them (PADOM02, SYBOR02, PLOPRI01) being detected in Germany for the first time. This study highlights the importance of conducting mosquito-borne pathogen surveillance studies simultaneously targeting vectors and vertebrate hosts, as certain species may be detected more readily in their vectors than in their vertebrate hosts, and vice versa.Graphical

Purifying selection leads to low protein diversity of the mitochondrial cyt b gene in avian malaria parasites

BackgroundMitochondrial respiration plays a central role in the survival of many eukaryotes, including apicomplexan parasites. A 479-bp fragment from the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene is widely used as a barcode to identify genetic lineages of avian malaria parasites Plasmodium and related haemosporidians. Here we looked for evidence of selection in the avian Plasmodium cyt b gene, using tests of selection and protein structure modeling. We also tested for the association between cyt b polymorphism and the host specificity of these parasites.ResultsBased on 1,089 lineages retrieved from the Malavi database, we found that the frequency of the most conserved amino acids in most sites was more than 90%, indicating that the protein diversity of the avian Plasmodium cyt b barcode was low. The exceptions were four amino acid sites that were highly polymorphic, though the substitutions had only slight functional impacts on the encoded proteins. The selection analyses revealed that avian Plasmodium cyt b was under strong purifying selection, and no positively selected sites were detected. Besides, lineages with a wide host range tend to share cyt b protein haplotypes.ConclusionsOur research indicates that purifying selection is the dominant force in the evolution of the avian Plasmodium cyt b lineages and leads to its low diversity at the protein level. Host specificity may also play a role in shaping the low mitochondrial diversity in the evolution of avian malaria parasites. Our results highlight the importance of considering selection pressure on the cyt b barcode region and lay a foundation for further understanding the evolutionary pattern of mitochondrial genes in avian malaria.

Avian malaria parasite infections do not affect personality in the chestnut thrush (Turdus rubrocanus) on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

Personality traits, the consistent individual behavioral differences, are currently gaining much attention in studies of natural bird populations. However, associations between personality traits and parasite infections are not often investigated. Even less attention has been given to studies of birds in the high-elevation region such as the Tibetan plateau. This research aims to examine the relationship between avian malaria parasites and two personality traits in a population of the Chestnut Thrush (Turdus rubrocanus) breed in the Tibetan plateau.Our results revealed no evidence of sex bias in malaria parasite prevalence. Furthermore, we found no effect of infection status on two personality scores: activity and boldness. Additionally, no effects on the activity level or boldness were observed for different parasite lineages of Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon, the sex of the birds, or their interactions. Similarly, we did not find any relationship between activity level and boldness with nestling numbers, sex, or their interactions. Notably, individuals with a larger number of offspring tended to display greater boldness. Our findings indicate that blood parasite infections are common in this population but do not significantly impact the personality of the birds.