Aversive Autobiographical Memories Research Articles

Virtual reality eye movements are not inferior to computerized eye movements and exposure in ameliorating aversive memories

Background and objectivesLab studies show that the emotionality and vividness of aversive memories decrease as a result of engaging in a working memory task during the recall of that memory. Translation of the dual tasking working mechanism to a VR program would allow for future VR-EMDR clinical and dissemination trials. The current study took the first step towards that goal by assessing the non-inferiority of a Virtual Reality (VR) eye movement task compared to computerized eye movements in amelioration of aversive autobiographical memory in a student sample. MethodsIn a cross-over design, university students (N = 195) recalled three aversive autobiographical memories and received VR Eye Movements (VR EM), Computerized Eye Movements (EM), and Exposure Only (EO). Emotionality and vividness of the memories were assessed before and after each condition. ResultsWe found VR EM to be non-inferior to Computerized EM and EO in reducing emotionality and vividness. Both EM conditions outperformed the EO condition. Against our expectations, we found steeper declines of emotionality scores in the VR EM condition compared to the Computerized EM. Lastly, we found a sensitization effect in our EO condition: emotionality and vividness increased due to this procedure. LimitationsDespite our efforts in standardizing working memory taxation between the dual tasking conditions (such as viewing angle and speed of eye movements), characteristics of the VR eye movements task might have unintentionally loaded additional working memory. ConclusionsThese findings show that VR eye movements could be a viable dual task and might serve as the first step to research VR eye movements in clinical practice.

Sleep\u2019s role in updating aversive autobiographical memories

Aversive autobiographical memories play a key role in the development and maintenance of many mental disorders. Imagery rescripting is a well-established psychotherapeutic intervention aiming to create a more adaptive version of an aversive memory by modifying its interpretation. Sleep has been shown to support reconsolidation of updated neutral memories. Here, we investigated in healthy participants whether a 90-min nap compared to wake supports the adaptive reconsolidation of autobiographical memories. Forty-four university students received a single 50-min imagery rescripting session. Thereafter, half of the participants took a 90-min nap, whereas the other half stayed awake. Subjective (arousal ratings, reports of emotions and dysfunctional cognitions) and heart rate (HR) responses to individual memory scripts were measured before the intervention (pre), after the 90-min retention interval (post 1) and 7 days later (post 2). Results demonstrate a significant decrease in distress of aversive memories pre to post imagery rescripting. The nap group showed less distressing dysfunctional cognitions along with a lower HR in response to the negative memory script as compared to the wake group at post 1. These differences were no longer evident 1 week later (post 2). Central sleep spindle density during the nap was correlated with the reduction in HR in response to the negative memory script from pre to post 1. Our results provide first evidence for sleep benefitting adaptive reconsolidation of aversive autobiographical memories. Future research should expand this approach to clinical populations and investigate precise conditions under which sleep may benefit psychotherapeutic interventions utilizing reconsolidation mechanisms.

The Efficacy of Downward Counterfactual Thinking for Regulating Emotional Memories in Anxious Individuals.

Aversive autobiographical memories sometimes prompt maladaptive emotional responses and contribute to affective dysfunction in anxiety and depression. One way to regulate the impact of such memories is to create a downward counterfactual thought–a mental simulation of how the event could have been worse–to put what occurred in a more positive light. Despite its intuitive appeal, counterfactual thinking has not been systematically studied for its regulatory efficacy. In the current study, we compared the regulatory impact of downward counterfactual thinking, temporal distancing, and memory rehearsal in 54 adult participants representing a spectrum of trait anxiety. Participants recalled regretful experiences and rated them on valence, arousal, regret, and episodic detail. Two to six days later, they created a downward counterfactual of the remembered event, thought of how they might feel about it 10 years from now, or simply rehearsed it. A day later, participants re-rated the phenomenological characteristics of the events. Across all participants, downward counterfactual thinking, temporal distancing, and memory rehearsal were equally effective at reducing negative affect associated with a memory. However, in individuals with higher trait anxiety, downward counterfactual thinking was more effective than rehearsal for reducing regret, and it was as effective as distancing in reducing arousal. We discuss these results in light of the functional theory of counterfactual thinking and suggest that they motivate further investigation into downward counterfactual thinking as a means to intentionally regulate emotional memories in affective disorders.

The Effects of the Flash Technique Compared to Those of an Abbreviated Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Therapy Protocol on the Emotionality and Vividness of Aversive Memories.

Introduction: The Flash technique is a novel intervention aimed at rapidly decreasing the subjective disturbance of an aversive memory, thereby serving as a potential way of treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The protocol is used to stimulate clients to engage in positive imagery while being discouraged to actively recollect the targeted disturbing memory. Previous research into the Flash technique’s efficacy shows promising results, yet controlled studies are lacking.Objectives: To test the efficacy of the Flash technique, it was compared to an abbreviated eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy protocol in a controlled experimental setting. We hypothesized that the Flash technique would lead to a larger decrease in the emotionality and vividness of an aversive autobiographical memory when compared to EMDR therapy. Our second hypothesis was that the procedure of the Flash technique would be evaluated more pleasant by its receiver.Method: The sample consisted of 60 non-clinical participants (mean age = 25.28 years; 73.33% female) who were able to recall an aversive autobiographical memory. They were randomized to either the Flash technique or the EMDR therapy condition. Measurements consisted of emotionality and vividness-ratings pre and post intervention, and at 1-week follow-up.Results: Bayesian analyses showed no differences between Flash and EMDR to the extent to which the emotionality and vividness of their memory was reduced. Afterward, the Flash technique was rated more pleasant than EMDR.Conclusion: The results support the claim that the Flash technique might be used as a brief and efficacious intervention for individuals suffering from disturbing memories. Although the results suggest that its efficacy does not differ from EMDR, the Flash technique seems to yield similar outcomes in a more pleasant way. Further research into its working mechanisms and in a clinical sample is required.

Taking a walk through time: aversive memory re-experiencing may be linked to spatio-temporal distance

ABSTRACT Background Individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) often report intrusive memories that appear to lack the appropriate spatio-temporal context. Objective We examined whether focusing on the spatio-temporal context of aversive autobiographical memories reduces negative emotions, appraisals, and re-experiencing symptoms. Methods We recruited 109 healthy adults and had them rate emotionality, vividness, and re-experiencing of an aversive autobiographical memory. Furthermore, we assessed automatic associations of idiosyncratic memory triggers with the concepts ‘past’ vs. ‘now’, and self-reported sense of memory closure and distancing. To manipulate spatio-temporal memory (re-)organization, the experimental group (n = 53) performed a lifeline exercise in virtual reality (VR), where participants symbolically placed memory triggers along a path representing their own personal life story. The control group (n = 56) completed a non-personalized VR task. Results We found a marked decrease in negative emotions, negative appraisals, and re-experiencing in the following week, but on average, the lifeline exercise was not superior to the control condition. However, those in the lifeline group with stronger trigger-past associations subsequently exhibited a more pronounced reduction in re-experiencing. Also, participants with a higher subjective sense of memory distancing reported less re-experiencing. Conclusions The findings lend tentative support for theoretical assumptions about PTSD, but the potential causal role of automatic associations with spatio-temporal information remains to be clarified.

Psychological and Physiological Effects of Imagery Rescripting for Aversive Autobiographical Memories

BackgroundImagery Rescripting (ImRs) is a promising intervention to reduce symptoms associated with aversive memories, but little is known about its working mechanisms. The present study investigates whether ImRs increases perceived mastery and attenuates emotional reactivity to memory retrieval on a subjective and physiological level.MethodsSeventy-nine individuals reporting memories of distressing real-life events were randomly allocated to ImRs, positive imagery (PI), or no-intervention control (NIC). The memory was reactivated before the intervention and at 1-week follow-up to assess subjective measures and physiological reactivity (heart rate [HR], skin conductance level [SCL], and facial electromyography activity [EMG]) during memory retrieval.ResultsImRs was superior to PI and NIC on subjective memory distress and helplessness, but not on other emotions. ImRs did not exceed PI and NIC in reducing state stress symptoms or increasing perceived mastery. Physiological reactivity (HR, EMG) decreased from pre-intervention to follow-up with no differences between groups.ConclusionsPositive effects of ImRs on helplessness and distress were found. Null findings regarding mastery might result from timing of its assessment or the fact that rather high-functioning participants were included. The lack of between group differences on physiological responses indicates that ImRs did not exceed habituation effects in the present sample.

Does valence contribute to the effects of dual tasking in aversive autobiographical memory? Some unexpected findings

Background and objectivesLab experiments show that engaging in a working memory task while recalling an aversive memory reduces emotionality and vividness of memories. Studies targeting lab induced negative memory with valenced secondary tasks show promise, but work is needed on autobiographical memories to make it more in line with the original dual tasking research and PTSD treatment in clinical populations. In this study, we address this gap by evaluating differential effectiveness of valenced dual tasks on emotionality and vividness of aversive autobiographical memories. MethodsUniversity students (N = 178) recalled an aversive autobiographical memory while rating either positive pictures, negative pictures, or while looking at a cross in the exposure only condition. Participants were randomized to one of three aforementioned conditions and rated their memories before and after each intervention on emotionality and vividness. ResultsAgainst expectations, memories became more emotional and vivid regardless of condition. With regard to vividness, this effect was characterized by an interaction effect: memories became more vivid in the exposure only condition than in the combined dual tasking conditions. All effect sizes were small. LimitationsWorking memory load in the dual tasking conditions might have been insufficient. ConclusionsThe current study did not extend findings with regard to (valenced) dual tasking and revealed a possible sensitization effect of script driven autobiographical memory induction. Our study highlights the importance of aspects such as the total amount of exposure and characteristics of memory induction, specifically the addition of a script driven approach to the usual self-initiated memory activation in dual tasking research.

No evidence for the inverted U-Curve: More demanding dual tasks cause stronger aversive memory degradation

Background and objectivesSimultaneously making eye movements and recalling a memory leads to competition in working memory (WM), which reduces memory vividness and emotionality. The dose-response relationship between WM taxation and aversive memory degradation is predicted to be either linear (i.e., more cognitively demanding tasks exhibit stronger effects) or follow an inverted U-curve (i.e., there should not be too little, but also not too much taxation). MethodsParticipants (N = 44) recalled four aversive autobiographical memories under four conditions that differed in WM taxation: complex, intermediate, simple, or no counting. Before and after each intervention, and at 24 h follow-up, participants recalled the aversive memory and rated it on vividness and unpleasantness. Using a Bayesian approach the linear and inverted U-shape relationships were directly compared. ResultsPretest to posttest drops in vividness and unpleasantness became larger with increased WM taxation of the counting conditions. There was no support for either hypotheses from pretest to follow-up for memory unpleasantness, whereas for memory vividness anecdotal evidence was found for a linear relationship. LimitationsA reaction time (RT) task was used to select counting tasks of varying difficulties. However, the validity of this task appears to be compromised under very strenuous conditions. Higher levels of WM taxation might have been possible with more difficult counting tasks. ConclusionsThere is strong evidence for a linear dose-response relationship between WM taxation and memory degradation immediately after the intervention, and some unconvincing evidence for this pattern one day later. There was no evidence for an inverted U-curve.

Imagery Rescripting of Aversive Autobiographical Memories: Effects on Memory Distress, Emotions, and Feelings of Mastery

Imagery rescripting (ImRs) has been shown to be a promising intervention for aversive emotional memories, but research on underlying mechanisms is only in its beginnings. Previous analogue studies on ImRs were mainly based on the trauma film paradigm, but the personal relevance of film-induced memories is limited. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the effects of ImRs on personally relevant autobiographical memories. Sixty-five participants who had experienced a distressing life-event were randomly assigned to ImRs or no-intervention control (NIC). ImRs led to less intrusive memories than NIC during the 1-week follow-up period, but was not superior in reducing overall event-related stress symptoms. When retrieving the memory after 1 week, ImRs participants reported greater reductions in sadness and distress, and higher feelings of mastery. Findings underline the potential of the paradigm used in this study to test memory processes involved in ImRs. Limitations and modifications of the paradigm are discussed.

Rethinking a Negative Event: The Affective Impact of Ruminative versus Imagery-Based Processing of Aversive Autobiographical Memories.

Ruminative (abstract verbal) processing during recall of aversive autobiographical memories may serve to dampen their short-term affective impact. Experimental studies indeed demonstrate that verbal processing of non-autobiographical material and positive autobiographical memories evokes weaker affective responses than imagery-based processing. In the current study, we hypothesized that abstract verbal or concrete verbal processing of an aversive autobiographical memory would result in weaker affective responses than imagery-based processing. The affective impact of abstract verbal versus concrete verbal versus imagery-based processing during recall of an aversive autobiographical memory was investigated in a non-clinical sample (n = 99) using both an observational and an experimental design. Observationally, it was examined whether spontaneous use of processing modes (both state and trait measures) was associated with impact of aversive autobiographical memory recall on negative and positive affect. Experimentally, the causal relation between processing modes and affective impact was investigated by manipulating the processing mode during retrieval of the same aversive autobiographical memory. Main findings were that higher levels of trait (but not state) measures of both ruminative and imagery-based processing and depressive symptomatology were positively correlated with higher levels of negative affective impact in the observational part of the study. In the experimental part, no main effect of processing modes on affective impact of autobiographical memories was found. However, a significant moderating effect of depressive symptomatology was found. Only for individuals with low levels of depressive symptomatology, concrete verbal (but not abstract verbal) processing of the aversive autobiographical memory did result in weaker affective responses, compared to imagery-based processing. These results cast doubt on the hypothesis that ruminative processing of aversive autobiographical memories serves to avoid the negative emotions evoked by such memories. Furthermore, findings suggest that depressive symptomatology is associated with the spontaneous use and the affective impact of processing modes during recall of aversive autobiographical memories. Clinical studies are needed that examine the role of processing modes during aversive autobiographical memory recall in depression, including the potential effectiveness of targeting processing modes in therapy.

The effects of eye movements on emotional memories: using an objective measure of cognitive load

BackgroundEye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is an effective treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. The working memory (WM) theory explains its efficacy: recall of an aversive memory and making eye movements (EM) both produce cognitive load, and competition for the limited WM resources reduces the memory's vividness and emotionality. The present study tested several predictions from WM theory.ObjectiveWe hypothesized that 1) recall of an aversive autobiographical memory loads WM compared to no recall, and 2) recall with EM reduces the vividness, emotionality, and cognitive load of recalling the memory more than only recall or only cognitive effort (i.e., recall of an irrelevant memory with EM).MethodUndergraduates (N=108) were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: 1) recall relevant memory with EM, 2) recall relevant memory without EM, and 3) recall irrelevant memory with EM. We used a random interval repetition task to measure the cognitive load of recalling the memory. Participants responded to randomly administered beeps, with or without recalling the memory. The degree to which participants slow down during recall provides an index of cognitive load. We measured the cognitive load and self-reported vividness and emotionality before, halfway through (8×24 s), and after (16×24 s) the intervention.ResultsReaction times slowed down during memory recall compared to no recall. The recall relevant with EM condition showed a larger decrease in self-reported vividness and emotionality than the control conditions. The cognitive load of recalling the memory also decreased in this condition but not consistently more than in the control conditions.ConclusionsRecall of an aversive memory loads WM, but drops in vividness and emotionality do not immediately reduce the cognitive load of recalling the memory. More research is needed to find objective measures that could capture changes in the quality of the memory. Highlights of the articleRecall of an aversive autobiographical memory is a cognitive demanding task.The vividness and emotionality of an aversive memory decrease more after recall with eye movements than after only recall or only cognitive effort (i.e., recall of an irrelevant memory with eye movements).The cognitive load of recalling the memory does not immediately reduce after recall with eye movements compared to only recall or only cognitive effort.Intervention duration is positively related to memory effects.

Speed Matters: Relationship between Speed of Eye Movements and Modification of Aversive Autobiographical Memories.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is an efficacious treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder. In EMDR, patients recall a distressing memory and simultaneously make eye movements (EM). Both tasks are considered to require limited working memory (WM) resources. Because this leaves fewer resources available for memory retrieval, the memory should become less vivid and less emotional during future recall. In EMDR analogue studies, a standardized procedure has been used, in which participants receive the same dual task manipulation of 1 EM cycle per second (1 Hz). From a WM perspective, the WM taxation of the dual task might be titrated to the WM taxation of the memory image. We hypothesized that highly vivid images are more affected by high WM taxation and less vivid images are more affected by low WM taxation. In study 1, 34 participants performed a reaction time task, and rated image vividness, and difficulty of retrieving an image, during five speeds of EM and no EM. Both a high WM taxing frequency (fast EM; 1.2 Hz) and a low WM taxing frequency (slow EM; 0.8 Hz) were selected. In study 2, 72 participants recalled three highly vivid aversive autobiographical memory images (n = 36) or three less vivid images (n = 36) under each of three conditions: recall + fast EM, recall + slow EM, or recall only. Multi-level modeling revealed a consistent pattern for all outcome measures: recall + fast EM led to less emotional, less vivid and more difficult to retrieve images than recall + slow EM and recall only, and the effects of recall + slow EM felt consistently in between the effects of recall + fast EM and recall only, but only differed significantly from recall + fast EM. Crucially, image vividness did not interact with condition on the decrease of emotionality over time, which was inconsistent with the prediction. Implications for understanding the mechanisms of action in memory modification and directions for future research are discussed.

A Comparison of Visual Versus Auditory Concurrent Tasks on Reducing the Distress and Vividness of Aversive Autobiographical Memories

This study investigated the benefits of eye movement similar to that used in eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) on reducing the vividness and emotionality of negative autobiographical memories. It was hypothesized, based on the working memory model, that any task that disrupts working memory would reduce the vividness and emotionality of distressing memories. In addition, it was predicted that the more visual a memory, the greater the reduction in vividness by a concurrent visual task over an auditory task (counting). Thirty-six nonclinical participants were asked to recall an unpleasant autobiographical memory while performing each of three dual-attention tasks: eye movement, listening to counting, or control (short exposure). Results showed that vividness and emotionality ratings of the memory decreased significantly after eye movement and counting, and that eye movement produced the greatest benefit. Furthermore, eye movement facilitated greater decrease in vividness irrespective of the modality of the memory. Although this is not consistent with the hypothesis from a working memory model of mode-specific effects, it is consistent with a central executive explanation. Implications for enhancing exposure treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are discussed.