Average Intensity Research Articles

Host-Parasite Interaction Between the Nematoda Procamallanus (Spirocamallanus) paraensis and Fish Hoplias malabaricus From the Natural Environment in the Brazilian Amazon.

Histopathological studies of parasitic infections in fish from the natural environment of Brazilian Amazon, are quite scarce. In this study, we investigated the histopathological changes of the proximal intestine of specimens of the Amazonian fish Hoplias malabaricus infected by the hematophagous nematode Procamallanus (Spirocamallanus) paraensis. The prevalence of the infection was 60%, with an average abundance of 1.46 and an average intensity of 2.43 parasites/fish. No significant difference was observed in the prevalence of infection and fish size or sex, but larger fish showed greater infection intensity, which was also significantly higher in male hosts. Histological sections of the proximal intestine showed reduction and loss of the epithelial lining, exposure of the lamina propria where the nematode interacts with the intestine wall, through the insertion of the buccal capsule and fish cellular debris in the intestinal lumen. In addition, areas with bleeding and inflammatory infiltrate were observed, but no changes or presence of parasite structures were observed in the other tunics of the intestinal wall.

Mg II h&k spectra of an enhanced network region simulated with the MURaM-ChE code. Results using 1.5D synthesis

The lines are key diagnostics of the solar chromosphere. They are sensitive to the temperature, density, and nonthermal velocities in the chromosphere. The average line profiles arising from previous 3D chromospheric simulations are too narrow compared to observations. We study the formation and properties of the lines in a model atmosphere. We also compare the average spectrum, peak intensity, and peak separation of with a representative observation taken by the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS). We use a model based on the recently developed nonequilibrium version of the radiative magneto-hydrodynamics code MURaM, the MURaM Chromospheric Extension ( in combination with forward modeling using the radiative transfer code RH1.5D to obtain synthetic spectra. Our model resembles an enhanced network region created using an evolved MURaM quiet Sun simulation and adding an imposed large-scale bipolar magnetic field similar to that in the public Bifrost snapshot of a bipolar magnetic feature. The line width and the peak separation of the spatially averaged spectrum of the lines from the simulation are close to a representative observation of the quiet Sun, which also includes network fields. However, we find the synthesized line width to be still slightly narrower than in the observation. We find that velocities in the chromosphere play a dominant role in the broadening of the spectral lines. While the average synthetic spectrum also shows a good match to the observations in the pseudo continuum between the two emission lines, the peak intensities are higher in the modeled spectrum. This discrepancy may be due in part to the larger magnetic flux density in the simulation than in the considered observations, but could also be a result of the 1.5D radiative transfer approximation. Our findings show that strong maximum-velocity differences or turbulent velocities in the chromosphere and lower atmosphere are necessary to reproduce the observed line widths of chromospheric spectral lines.

Varying levels of natural light intensity affect the phyto-biochemical compounds, antioxidant indices and genes involved in the monoterpene biosynthetic pathway of Origanum majorana L.

BackgroundLight is a critical environmental factor in plants, encompassing two vital aspects: intensity and quality. To assess the influence of different light intensities on Origanum majorana L., pots containing the herb were subjected to four levels of light intensity: 20, 50, 70, and 100% natural light. After a 60-day treatment period, the plants were evaluated for metabolite production, including total sugar content, protein, dry weight, antioxidant indices, expression of monoterpenes biosynthesis genes, and essential oil compounds. The experimental design followed a randomized complete blocks format, and statistical analysis of variance was conducted.ResultsThe results indicated a correlation between increased light intensity and elevated total sugar and protein content, which contributed to improved plant dry weight. The highest levels of hydrogen peroxide and malondialdehyde (MDA) were observed under 100% light intensity. Catalase and superoxide dismutase enzymes exhibited increased activity, with a 4.23-fold and 2.14-fold increase, respectively, under full light. In contrast, peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase enzyme activities decreased by 3.29-fold and 3.24-fold, respectively. As light intensity increases, the expression level of the 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR) gene increases. However, beyond a light intensity of 70%, the DXR gene expression level decreased. Furthermore, the expression levels of the cytochrome P450 genes CYP71D178 and CYP71D179 exhibited an increasing trend in response to elevated light intensity. Essential oil content increased from 0.02 to 0.5% until reaching 70% light intensity. However, with further increases in light intensity, the essential oil content decreased by 54 to 0.23%.ConclusionsThese findings emphasize the importance of balancing plant growth promotion and stress management under different light conditions. The research suggests that sweet marjoram plants thrive best in unshaded open spaces, resulting in maximum biomass. However, essential oil production decreases under the same conditions. For farmers in areas with an average light intensity of approximately 1700 µmol m−2s−1, it is recommended to cultivate sweet marjoram in shade-free fields to optimize biomass and essential oil production. Towards the end of the growth cycle, it is advisable to use shades that allow 70% of light to pass through. The specific duration of shade implementation can be further explored in future research.

Hyperspectral Imaging Reveals Differential Carotenoid and Chlorophyll Temporal Dynamics and Spatial Patterns in Scots Pine Under Water Stress.

Drought-related die-off events have been observed throughout Europe in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). Such events are exacerbated by carbon starvation that is, an imbalance of photosynthetic productivity and resource usage. Recent evidence suggests that optically measurable photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophylls and carotenoids respond to water stress (WS). However, there is a lack of measurements using imaging spectroscopy, and the mechanisms linking xanthophyll-related changes in reflectance captured by the photochemical reflectance index (PRI) and chlorophyll changes in red edge position (REP) to WS are not understood. To probe this, we conducted a greenhouse experiment where 3-year-old Pinus sylvestris saplings were subjected to water limitation and followed using hyperspectral imaging (HSI) spectroscopy, water status and photosynthetic measurements. Carotenoids (e.g., xanthophyll cycle) and chlorophylls responded to WS, which was observed using the HSI-derived indices PRI and REP respectively. The spatial-temporal response in these two pigment-reflectance groupings differed. The spatial distribution of PRI represented the light intensity around the time of the measurement, whereas REP reflected the daily averaged light intensity over the experimental course. A further difference was noted upon rewatering, where the carotenoid-related PRI partially recovered but the chlorophyll-related REP did not.

Assessing the growth, yield, and biochemical composition of greenhouse cherry tomatoes with special emphasis on the progressive growth report

The growth of plants hinges on a complex interplay of biochemical and physiological activities across various growth stages. These intricate processes dynamically adapt to different environmental conditions, shaping both plant development and productivity. This study explores the impact of greenhouse climate on the growth, yield, and biochemistry of winter-grown cherry tomatoes ‘Cheramy F1’. A randomized complete block design (RCBD) under split plot arrangements (3 Rows) with three replications (3 plants from each row) was adopted. The data were collected on various dates during the period extending from December to March of two consecutive growing seasons in 2022 and 2023, and presented as averages. An analysis of variance was applied to statistically analyze the collected data at a confidence level of p < 0.05. The climatic conditions in the greenhouse were calculated as temperature ranging from a minimum of 10.5 °C to the maximum of 41.3 °C by an average of 21.2 °C during the vegetative stage and from 8.2 °C to 32.3 °C by an average of 20.9 °C during the fruit-bearing stage, with an average CO2 concentration fluctuated within the range of 385.61 ppm to 510.30 ppm and an average light intensity of 94.62 to 240.45 W/m². This study assessed various growth parameters such as plant height, leaf growth, stem diameter, leaf spacing, leaf count, leaf area, and inflorescence count per plant, and suggested the optimum range of greenhouse conditions for each stage. The key results of this study revealed the Progressive Growth Report (PGR), predicting daily potential growth rates of plants: plant height, 2.86 to 3.81 cm/day; growth rate of mature older leaf: 0.003988 m2/day; middle younger leaf: 0.008733 m2/day; top nascent leaf: 0.010722 m2/day; three to five leaves per week; and one inflorescence per week. In our accidental observation, we noticed unusual plant growth and yield responses because of the various growing postures and positions that the plants adopted in the greenhouse. An exceedingly significant difference among the inflorescences was found in view of their growth, productivity and biochemical composition. A non-significant interaction was found between the fruit keeping quality (shelf days), fruit height, fruit diameter, and inflorescence number. The present study results highlight the possible responses of greenhouse-grown cherry tomatoes to different ranges of temperature, light intensity, and CO2 concentrations, offering valuable insights for optimizing greenhouse cherry tomatoes cultivation.

Characteristics of flow structure of lateral inlet/outlet in pumped storage power stations

Investigating the complex separated flows in lateral inlet/outlets of pumped-storage power stations(PSPS) is crucial for optimizing their design to ensure safe and efficient operation. In this study, Large Eddy Simulations (LES) are employed to reveal the relationship between turbulence intensity and the distribution of coherent structures in separated flows, as well as the evolution characteristics of hairpin vortices. The flow separation is notably influenced by the vertical diffusion angles α, which causes recirculation zones at the top of the inlet/outlet, leading to significant local flow velocities at the trash racks and increasing the risk of flow-induced vibration damage. Areas of high turbulence intensity exist at the top and bottom of the core flow, caused by the propagation of corresponding streams of vortical flow, which is identified as the primary cause of head loss in the inlet/outlet. Based on the average turbulence intensity, the inlet/outlet can be divided into zones of sharp turbulence increase, high turbulence intensity, and decreasing turbulence intensity. The vortical flow mainly includes three types of coherent structures: attached vortices, hairpin vortices, and quasi-streamwise vortices. Among these, the frequency of top hairpin vortices and the growth angle of hairpin vortex packets are highly susceptible to α. The growth direction of hairpin vortex packets closely aligns with the direction of turbulence intensity propagation. These findings contribute to optimizing the design of inlet/outlet of PSPS.

Prediction the Level of the Electromagnetic Background Created by Constellations of Satellites Near the Earth’s Surface Using Registration Data

A technique has been proposed for predicting the average intensity of electromagnetic background created near the Earth’s surface by a constellation of communication satellites, taking into account the number of satellites in the constellation, the satellite total radiated power, parameters of its radiation in the main and side lobes, the orbit altitude and restrictions on the tilt angle of service of ground-based equipment. The results of the analysis of the dependence of the average electromagnetic background levels at the Earth’s surface on the number of satellites in the constellation under various scenarios for the implementation of information services for terrestrial subscriber terminals are presented, confirming the adequacy of the developed approach. It is concluded that the expected levels of electromagnetic background in the microwave range created by megaconstellations of low-orbit communication satellites are many orders of magnitude higher than the levels of electromagnetic background of natural origin, which significantly changes the physical characteristics of the habitat.

Effects of a 6-month aerobic exercise intervention on brain morphology in women with breast cancer receiving aromatase inhibitor therapy: a sub-study of the EPICC trial

ObjectivePhysical exercise may increase brain volume and cortical thickness in late adulthood. However, few studies have examined the possibility for exercise to influence brain morphology in women treated for breast cancer. We conducted a nested sub-study within a randomized clinical trial to examine whether 6 months of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise in postmenopausal women with early-stage breast cancer influences brain morphology.MethodsWe included twenty-eight postmenopausal women newly diagnosed with Stage 0-IIIa breast cancer (M age = 62.96 ± 5.40) who were randomized to either 45–60 min of supervised aerobic exercise 3 days/week (n = 16) or usual care (n = 12). Before beginning aromatase inhibitor aromatase inhibitor therapy, and the exercise intervention, and again at 6-month follow-up, volumetric and cortical thickness measures were derived from magnetic resonance imaging scans.ResultsThere were no significant intervention effects on brain volume and cortical thickness. However, greater average exercise intensity (%) during the intervention was associated with greater post-intervention cortical volume, mean cortical thickness, precentral gyrus thickness, and superior parietal thickness (all p &amp;lt; 0.05). Finally, total supervised exercise time was associated with higher precentral gyrus thickness after the intervention (p = 0.042, R2 = 0.263).ConclusionThe exercise intervention did not significantly affect brain volumes and cortical thickness compared to the control group. However, positive associations were found between exercise intensity and brain morphology changes after the 6-month intervention, indicating that exercise may reduce the vulnerability of the brain to the deleterious effects of breast cancer and its treatment.

Discordance between preclinical and clinical testing of NaV1.7-selective inhibitors for pain.

The voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.7 plays an important role in pain processing according to genetic data. Those data made NaV1.7 a popular drug target, especially since its relatively selective expression in nociceptors promised pain relief without the adverse effects associated with broader sodium channel blockade. Despite encouraging preclinical data in rodents, NaV1.7-selective inhibitors have not yet proven effective in clinical trials. Discrepancies between preclinical and clinical results should raise alarms. We reviewed preclinical and clinical reports on the analgesic efficacy of NaV1.7-selective inhibitors and found critical differences in several factors. Putting aside species differences, most preclinical studies tested young male rodents with limited genetic variability, inconsistent with the clinical population. Inflammatory pain was the most common preclinical chronic pain model whereas nearly all clinical trials focused on neuropathic pain despite some evidence suggesting NaV1.7 channels are not essential for neuropathic pain. Preclinical studies almost exclusively measured evoked pain whereas most clinical trials assessed average pain intensity without distinguishing between evoked and spontaneous pain. Nearly all preclinical studies gave a single dose of drug unlike the repeat dosing used clinically, thus precluding preclinical data from demonstrating whether tolerance or other slow processes occur. In summary, preclinical testing of NaV1.7-selective inhibitors aligned poorly with clinical testing. Beyond issues that have already garnered widespread attention in the pain literature, our results highlight the treatment regimen and choice of pain model as areas for improvement.

Association of Myianoetus sp. (Acari: Histiostomatidae) with necrophagous fly Compsomyiops fulvicrura (Diptera: Calliphoridae), in the Prepuna ecoregion (Jujuy: Argentina)

The genus Myianoetus Oudemans (Acari: Histiostomatidae) is commonly associated with carrion, utilizing flies (Diptera) from various families as a means of dispersal through phoresy. The objective of this paper is to present a new association between Myianoetus sp. mites and Calliphoridae flies and discuss its relevance in forensic sciences. Samples were collected in 3 locations in the Prepuna ecoregion of Jujuy, Argentina. Specimens were captured using necrotraps baited with cow lung. Flies carrying phoretic mites were separated and identified to a specific level, while mites were counted and identified at the lowest possible taxonomic level. Compsomyiops fulvicrura (Robineau-Desvoidy) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) was the only species that presented attached mites, with an average intensity of 12.26 mites per fly. The mites carried by C. fulvicrura were identified as deutonymphs of Myianoetus sp., with a prevalence of 2.56% of infested flies. Significant differences in the abundance of flies with mites were observed between locations and seasons. This article represents the first contribution to knowledge on the specific association between Myianoetus sp. and C. fulvicrura. These findings in forensic ecology are relevant for their potential contribution and application in the development of more precise methods in specific forensic cases.

Real-time optical thickness determination for producing ultra-thin silicon membranes using anisotropic potassium hydroxide etching

AbstractThinning silicon wafers via wet etching is a common practice in the microelectromechanical system (MEMS) industry to produce membranes and other structures Wang (Nano Lett 13(9): 4393–4398, 2013). Controlling the thickness of a membrane is a critical aspect to optimize the functionality of these devices. Our research specifically focuses on the production of bio-membranes for lung-on-a-chip (LoaC) applications. In our fabrication, it is crucial for us to determine the membranes’ thickness in a non-invasive way. This study aims to address this issue by attempting to develop a tool that uses the optical properties of light transmission through silicon to find a correlation with thickness. To find this correlation, we conducted a small experimental study where we fabricated ultra-thin membranes and captured images of the light transmission through these samples. This paper will report the correlation found between calculated average intensities of these images and measurements done using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Graphical abstract

The Relationship Between the Burpee Movement Program and Strength and Endurance Performance Measures in Active Young Adults: A Cross-Sectional Analysis.

This paper aimed to assess the motor performance in the Burpee Movement Program through the acceleration recorded by the Phyphox mobile app and define its relationship to strength and endurance parameters. Altogether, 15 students in physical education teaching completed the 3 × 3 min Burpee Movement Program, consisting of the repeated execution of a single burpee with maximum effort at regular intervals triggered by a sound signal. During the load phase, the intensity of the burpee and the fatigue index expressed in percentages were evaluated by means of the acceleration recorded through a mobile phone. In the second part of testing, we evaluated the performance parameters during a bench press and squat where the intensity was measured using a linear displacement transducer (Tendo Power Analyzer) and aerobic endurance was assessed with a 20 m shuttle run test (20 mSR). The average intensity of the burpee ranged from 3.12 to 11.12 ms-2. The fatigue index ranged from -21.95% (which represented an increase in performance) to 33.63% (which represented a decrease in performance). The performances in the bench presses ranged from 58 to 480 W and from 175 to 696 W during the squats. The distance in the 20 m shuttle run test (20 mSR) ranged from 540 to 2000 m. The intensity of the burpee showed a significant correlation to the performances achieved in the bench presses and squats r = 0.82 and 0.79. The fatigue index showed a significant correlation to the 20 m shuttle run test (20 mSR) r = -0.67. These findings indicate that in, our case, the results from the Burpee Movement Program are significantly associated with the participants' strength and endurance abilities. We recommend using BMP for the development of strength-endurance abilities, but further exploration is needed regarding the potential use of BMP as a diagnostic test.

Efficacy, safety and tolerability of GSK3858279, an anti-CCL17 monoclonal antibody and analgesic, in healthy volunteers and patients with knee osteoarthritis pain: a phase I, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, proof-of-mechanism and proof-of-concept study

ObjectivesThe objective of this study was to evaluate efficacy, safety and tolerability of the first-in-class, anti-CCL17 monoclonal antibody, GSK3858279, in treating knee osteoarthritis (OA) pain.MethodsThis was a phase I, randomised,...

Secure and Robust Dual Watermarking for Western Blot Images

The rapid growth of digital data sharing has created a pressing need to safeguard the integrity, authenticity, and security of bioanalytical images, such as Western blots, online. To address this challenge, we propose a novel hybrid biometric watermarking technique that combines randomised singular value decomposition (RSVD), discrete wavelet transform (DWT), schur transform, pseudo magic cube, and chaotic encryption, making the watermarking of Western blot images more secure, robust, and imperceptible. Our approach surpasses state-of-the-art methods, ensuring imperceptible watermarking and robust protection against tampering and unauthorised use. By integrating spatial and transform-domain techniques, we achieve superior performance, outperforming existing methods with a peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) of 48.7581, structural similarity index (SSIM) of 0.9998, a normalised correlation (NC) of 0.9996, an average number of changing pixel rate (NPCR) of 0.9961, and an average unified average changing intensity (UACI) of 0.3334. Our technique sets a new standard for digital image protection in scientific research, addressing critical challenges in tampering, copyright protection, and data security. With its high performance and security, our approach enables the trustworthy sharing and publication of Western blot images in the digital era.

Boundary conditions alter density and stress fluctuations in shear-thickening suspensions

Discontinuous shear thickening in dense suspensions is accompanied by significant fluctuations in stress at a fixed shear rate. In this work, normal stress fluctuations are shown to have a one-to-one relationship with the formation and dissolution of local high-density regions. Namely, a burst in the force response corresponds to the spontaneous appearance of inhomogeneity. We observe that boundary conditions can significantly alter the spatiotemporal scale of these fluctuations, from short-lived to more sustained and enduring patterns. We estimate the occurrence frequency R and the average intensity Q of individual bursts/inhomogeneity events. The growth of R with the shear rate is the most rapid for the rigid boundary, whereas Q is nonmonotonic with confinement stiffness. Our results indicate that boundary conditions alter the development of inhomogeneity and thus the stress response under shear.

Revealing Cropping Intensity Dynamics Using High-Resolution Imagery: A Case Study in Shaanxi Province, China

Reliable and continuous information on cropping intensity is crucial for assessing cropland utilization and formulating policies regarding cropland protection and management. However, there is still a lack of high-resolution cropping intensity maps for recent years, particularly in fragmented agricultural regions. In this study, we combined Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 imagery to generate cropping intensity maps from 2019 to 2023 at a 10 m resolution for Shaanxi Province, China. First, the satellite imagery was harmonized to construct 10-day composite enhanced vegetation index (EVI) time series. Then, the cropping intensity was determined by counting the number of valid EVI peaks within a year. Assessment based on 578 sample points showed a high level of accuracy, with overall accuracy and Kappa coefficient values exceeding 0.96 and 0.93, respectively. We further analyzed the spatiotemporal patterns of cropping intensity and generated a map of abandoned cropland in Shaanxi. The results indicated that cropland in Shaanxi Province was mainly utilized for single-cropping (52.9% of area), followed by double-cropping (35.2%), with non-cropping accounting for 11.9%. Cropping intensity tended to be lower in the north and higher in the south. Temporally, the average cropping intensity of Shaanxi increased from 1.1 to over 1.3 from 2019 to 2023. Despite this upward trend, large areas of cropland were abandoned in northern Shaanxi. These results demonstrate the potential of utilizing Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 imagery to identify cropping intensity dynamics in fragmented agricultural regions and to guide more efficient cropland management.

Age-specific ASPECTS atlas of Chinese subjects across different age groups for assessing acute ischemic stroke

The Alberta Stroke Program Early Computed Tomography Score (ASPECTS) is a valuable and easy-to-use method for assessing acute ischemic stroke. It aids in identifying suitable candidates for thrombolytic therapies and evaluating treatment effectiveness. However, ASPECTS evaluation primarily relies on visual observation in current clinical practice, lacking a common standardized space. Additionally, different doctors may have varying clinical experiences, leading to a poor inter-reader agreement and potential errors in the final ASPECTS scoring. To address these issues and fill in the absence of a publicly available ASPECTS atlas, this work constructs age-specific Chinese ASPECTS atlases based on non-contrast computed tomography images of 281 healthy subjects across different age groups. Images of different age groups are warped into respective common averaged spaces, where the average intensity atlases are computed. More importantly, 10 ASPECTS regions can be obtained during this process. We develop an automated ASPECTS region mapping pipeline and collect an independent dataset to validate our atlas. The results prove that the age-specific ASPECTS atlas is of great promise in clinical availability.

Interdisciplinary multimodal pain therapy: does the dose make adifference? : Acomparison from routine clinical care

Interdisciplinary multimodal pain therapy (IMPT) is an established treatment for patients with severe chronic pain. Little evidence is available on the role of treatment dosage and, in particular, on the association between the duration of IMPT and treatment outcome. The aim of this retrospective study was to compare the medium-term treatment success of ashort inpatient (SIT, 1week) and along outpatient (LOT, 4weeks) IMPT with acomparable treatment concept and comparable therapy intensity (20 h/week) in patients with severe chronic pain. Patients in both groups completed the German Pain Questionnaire at the beginning and end of IMPT as well as after 3months. Primary outcome measures included pain-related impairment and average pain intensity at follow-up in patients of comparable sex, age as well as pain intensity and impairment at the beginning of the therapy. While both groups initially showed significant treatment effects in pain-related impairment and average pain intensity, LOT patients (n = 32) reported significantly better values in both variables at 3‑month follow-up compared with SIT patients (n = 32). This was due to sustained positive effects in LOT patients and worsening in the SIT group. The results indicate that initial treatment effects can be observed in both treatment settings, but alonger duration of therapy seems to favour the long-term stability of treatment effects.

Factors Influencing Background Parenchymal Enhancement in Contrast-Enhanced Mammography Images.

Background: The aim of this study is to evaluate the correlation between background parenchymal enhancement (BPE) and various patient-related and technical factors in recombined contrast-enhanced spectral mammography (CESM) images. Material and Methods: We assessed CESM images from 62 female patients who underwent CESM between May 2017 and October 2019, focusing on factors influencing BPE. A total of 235 images, all acquired using the same mammography machine, were analyzed. A region of interest (ROI) with a standard size of 0.75 to 1 cm2 was used to evaluate the minimal, maximal, and average pixel intensity enhancement. Additionally, the images were qualitatively assessed on a scale from 1 (minimal BPE) to 4 (marked BPE). We examined correlations with body mass index (BMI), age, hematocrit, hemoglobin levels, cardiovascular conditions, and the amount of pressure applied during the examination. Results: Our study identified a significant correlation between the amount of pressure applied during the examination and the BPE (Spearman's ρ = 0.546). Additionally, a significant but weak correlation was observed between BPE and BMI (Spearman's ρ = 0.421). No significant associations were found between BPE and menopausal status, cardiovascular preconditions, hematocrit, hemoglobin levels, breast density, or age. Conclusions: Patient-related and procedural factors significantly influence BPE in CESM images. Specifically, increased applied pressure and BMI are associated with higher BPE.

Agricultural Productivity and Climate Mitigation

Agriculture will play a central role in meeting greenhouse gas (GHG) emission targets, as the sector currently contributes ∼22% of global emissions. Because emissions are directly tied to resources employed in farm production, such as land, fertilizer, and ruminant animals, the productivity of input use tends to be inversely related to emissions intensity. We review evidence on how productivity gains in agriculture have contributed to historical changes in emissions, how they affect land use emissions both locally and globally, and how investments in research and development (R&amp;D) affect productivity and therefore emissions. The world average agricultural emissions intensity fell by more than half since 1990, with a strong correlation between a region's agricultural productivity growth and reduction in emissions intensity. Additional investment in agricultural R&amp;D offers an opportunity for cost-effective (&lt;US$30 per ton carbon dioxide) and large-scale emissions reductions. Innovations that target specific commodities or inputs could even further reduce the cost of climate mitigation in agriculture.