Avalanche Diode Detector Research Articles

Characterization of hexagonal boron nitride quantum emitters for application in quantum radiometry

Abstract We present the metrological characterization of single-photon emitters based on single point defects in hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) to be used in quantum radiometry. The characterization is performed in terms of their spectral characteristics, single-photon properties and stability of photon flux emission at room temperature. A statistical analysis of 563 emitters has been carried out showing that approximately one third of the photon emission can be attributed to single photon emitters. In addition, a relative calibration of two single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detectors using a selected hBN single-photon emitter is presented.

A germanium-vacancy center in diamond as single-photon source for radiometric application

Abstract We present the metrological characterization of a single-photon source based on a germanium-vacancy center in diamond under a solid immersion lens in a confocal microscope setup at room temperature. It was characterized in terms of the emission’s spectral distribution, single-photon purity, temporal stability and the emitter’s excited state lifetime and saturation behavior. An Allan deviation analysis was performed on the emission of the single-photon source to determine the optimal averaging time of the photon flux. The single-photon source was used for the relative calibration of the detection efficiency of two single-photon avalanche diode detectors. The results were compared with measurements using attenuated laser light for the calibration of the detectors.

Traceable characterisation of fibre-coupled single-photon detectors

Abstract The detection of single photons plays an essential role in advancing single-photon science and technologies. Yet, within the visible/near-infrared spectral region, accurate fibre-based optical power measurements at the few-photon level are not yet well-established. In this study, we report on a fibre-based setup, enabling traceable optical power measurements at the few-photon level in this spectral region. The setup was used to calibrate the detection efficiency (DE) of four single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detectors. The relative standard uncertainties on the mean DE values obtained from repeat fibre-to-detector couplings ranged from 0.67% to 0.81% (k = 2). However, the relative standard deviation of DE values, which ranged from 1.38% to 3.20% (k = 2), poses a challenge for the metrology of these devices and applications that require high accuracy and repeatability. We investigated the source of these variations by spatially mapping the response of a detector’s fibre connector port, using a focused free-space beam, allowing us to estimate the detector’s spatial non-uniformity. In addition, we realise a novel calibration approach for fibre-coupled SPADs in a free-space configuration, enabling a direct comparison between the fibre-based setup and the National Physical Laboratory’s established free-space facility using a single SPAD. Finally, we investigated alternative coupling methods, testing the repeatability of different fibre-to-fibre connectors in addition to direct fibre-to-detector couplings: SPADs from three manufacturers were tested, with both single-mode and multi-mode fibre.

Simulation evaluation of a single-photon laser methane remote sensor for leakage rate monitoring.

We propose a novel methane leakage rate remote sensor that combines a single-photon avalanche diode detector with a near-infrared 1653.7 nm low-power laser. The proposed M sequence and triangle wave signal modulation method simultaneously realizes the detection of methane leakage and target point clouds. Innovatively, the sensor's methane concentration and leakage rate quantification ability were simulated by combining the Gaussian plume diffusion model and the Risley prism. The effects of the prism rotation ratio, wind speed, leakage rate, atmospheric stability (AS), target reflectivity, signal averaging period, and concentration spatial interpolation method on leakage rate are discussed. When plume methane concentrations reduce from 10,000 to 500 ppm·m, the relative concentration bias rise from 1% to 30%, the absolute concentration bias is approximately 100 ppm·m. Two spatial concentration interpolation methods introduced leakage rate bias ranging from 6%-25%. For a low AS, the leakage rate bias under the cubic interpolation method was small (approximately 1.6%). In addition, when the initial leakage rate increased from 100 to 1,000 mg/s, the leakage rate bias was approximately 20% smaller.

A Gradient-Gated SPAD Array for Non-Line-of-Sight Imaging

Time-resolved non-line-of-sight (NLOS) imaging based on single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detectors have demonstrated impressive results in recent years. To acquire adequate number of indirect photons from a hidden scene in the presence of overwhelming amount of early-arrival photons, a single-gated SPAD is widely employed to mitigate pile-up. However, additional prior knowledge of the hidden range and relay surface profile are required to preset the gating position and implement the reconstruction. With this work, we propose a gradient-gated technique to alleviate these shortcomings (pile-up and prior knowledge) in NLOS imaging with the development of a 6 × 6 SPAD array fabricated in a standard 55-nm Bipolar-CMOS-DMOS (BCD) technology. The SPAD sensor includes a delay-locked loop (DLL) block, a gating generator and a pixel array, which can be flexibly configured to free-running, single-gating and gradient-gating modes. The rise time of the gates is less than 450 ps (from 10% to 90%). In gradient-gating mode, the interval time between adjacent gates can be configured from 300 ps to 2 ns. In single-gating mode, the minimum gate window is measured below 5 ns. We demonstrated the sensor in a confocal NLOS imaging system that reconstructs hidden scenes with both retroreflective and diffuse objects. The presented scheme enables the development of calibration-free NLOS imaging modality for practical applications.

Effect of Two Biostimulants, Based on Ascophyllum nodosum Extracts, on Strawberry Performance under Mild Drought Stress

The world’s population continues to grow while available natural resources, such as arable land, water, and quality soil, are decreasing. Therefore, it is essential to implement environmentally friendly crop management strategies, which include the use of biostimulants. This study analysed the effects on strawberry plants of ActyseiTM and Phylgreen®, two commercial biostimulants based on extracts of the seaweed Ascophyllum nodosum. The study was conducted under field capacity (regular irrigation) and at 50% field capacity (mild water stress conditions) for 12 weeks. Different growth parameters of the aerial parts of the plants were measured weekly, such as the number of leaves, length of the longest leaf, leaf area, and the number of flowers and fruits produced, as well as the chlorophyll content, determined with a single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detector. At the end of the experiment, the plant material was collected, and the roots and aerial parts were weighed separately to obtain the fresh and dry weight of the samples. Fruit quality was assessed by analysing morphological parameters (weight and size) and some biochemical variables (proline, total soluble sugars, and antioxidant compounds contents). ActyseiTM application generally enhanced plant growth in control plants and under mild water stress conditions, even though root weight was reduced. In contrast, no significant effect of Phylgreen® on vegetative growth was observed, except for stimulating the root growth of plants watered at field capacity. Both biostimulants, Phylgreen® to a greater extent, showed an impact on the plants already seven weeks after their initial application, stimulating flower and fruit production, especially at field capacity.

3D quantum ghost imaging.

We present current results of a novel, to the best of our knowledge, type of setup for quantum ghost imaging based on asynchronous single photon timing using single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detectors, first presented in [Appl. Opt.60, F66 (2021)APOPAI0003-693510.1364/AO.423634]. The scheme enables photon pairing without fixed delays and, thus, overcomes some limitations of the widely used heralded setups for quantum ghost imaging [Nat. Commun.6, 5913 (2015)NCAOBW2041-172310.1038/ncomms6913]. It especially allows three-dimensional (3D) imaging by direct time of flight methods, the first demonstration of which will be shown here. To our knowledge, it is also the first demonstration of 3D quantum ghost imaging at all.

Rapid single-photon color imaging of moving objects.

This paper outlines an experimental demonstration of a Bayesian image reconstruction approach to achieve rapid single-photon color imaging of moving objects. The capacity to extract the color of objects is important in a variety of target identification and computer vision applications. Nonetheless, it remains challenging to achieve high-speed color imaging of moving objects in low-photon flux environments. The low-photon regime presents particular challenges for efficient spectral separation and identification, while unsupervised image reconstruction algorithms are often slow and computationally expensive. In this paper, we address both of these difficulties using a combination of hardware and computational solutions. We demonstrate color imaging using a Single-Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) detector array for rapid, low-light-level data acquisition, with an integrated color filter array (CFA) for efficient spectral unmixing. High-speed image reconstruction is achieved using a bespoke Bayesian algorithm to produce high-fidelity color videos. The analysis is conducted first on simulated data allowing different pixel formats and photon flux scenarios to be investigated. Experiments are then performed using a plasmonic metasurface-based CFA, integrated with a 64 × 64 pixel format SPAD array. Passive imaging is conducted using white-light illumination of multi-colored, moving targets. Intensity information is recorded in a series of 2D photon-counting SPAD frames, from which accurate color information is extracted using the fast Bayesian method introduced herein. The per-frame reconstruction rate proves to be hundreds of times faster than the previous computational method. Furthermore, this approach yields additional information in the form of uncertainty measures, which can be used to assist with imaging system optimization and decision-making in real-world applications. The techniques demonstrated point the way towards rapid video-rate single-photon color imaging. The developed Bayesian algorithm, along with more advanced SPAD technology and utilization of time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) will permit live 3D, color videography in extremely low-photon flux environments.

Fast time-domain diffuse correlation spectroscopy with superconducting nanowire single-photon detector: system validation and in vivo results

Time-domain diffuse correlation spectroscopy (TD-DCS) has been introduced as an advancement of the “classical” continuous wave DCS (CW-DCS) allowing one to not only to measure depth-resolved blood flow index (BFI) but also to extract optical properties of the measured medium without using any additional diffuse optics technique. However, this method is a photon-starved technique, specially when considering only the late photons that are of primary interest which has limited its in vivo application. In this work, we present a TD-DCS system based on a superconducting nanowire single-photon detector (SNSPD) with a high quantum efficiency, a narrow timing response, and a negligibly low dark count noise. We compared it to the typically used single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detector. In addition, this system allowed us to conduct fast in vivo measurements and obtain gated pulsatile BFI on the adult human forehead.

TSDSR: Temporal–Spatial Domain Denoise Super-Resolution Photon-Efficient 3D Reconstruction by Deep Learning

The combination of a single-photon avalanche diode detector with a high-sensitivity and photon-efficient reconstruction algorithm can realize the reconstruction of target range image from weak light signal conditions. The limited spatial resolution of the detector and the substantial background noise remain significant challenges in the actual detection process, hindering the accuracy of 3D reconstruction techniques. To address this challenge, this paper proposes a denoising super-resolution reconstruction network based on generative adversarial network (GAN) design. Soft thresholding is incorporated into the deep architecture as a nonlinear transformation layer to effectively filter out noise. Moreover, the Unet-based discriminator is introduced to complete the high-precision detail reconstruction. The experimental results show that the proposed network can achieve high-quality super-resolution range imaging. This approach has the potential to enhance the accuracy and quality of long-range imaging in weak light signal conditions, with broad applications in fields such as robotics, autonomous vehicles, and biomedical imaging.

Resolving the Emission Transition Dipole Moments of Single Doubly Excited Seeded Nanorods via Heralded Defocused Imaging.

Semiconductor nanocrystal emission polarization is a crucial probe of nanocrystal physics and an essential factor for nanocrystal-based technologies. While the transition dipole moment for the lowest excited state to ground state transition is well characterized, the dipole moment of higher multiexcitonic transitions is inaccessible via most spectroscopy techniques. Here, we realize direct characterization of the doubly excited-state relaxation transition dipole by heralded defocused imaging. Defocused imaging maps the dipole emission pattern onto a fast single-photon avalanche diode detector array, allowing the postselection of photon pairs emitted from the biexciton-exciton emission cascade and resolving the differences in transition dipole moments. Type-I1/2 seeded nanorods exhibit higher anisotropy of the biexciton-to-exciton transition compared to the exciton-to-ground state transition. In contrast, type-II seeded nanorods display a reduction of biexciton emission anisotropy. These findings are rationalized in terms of an interplay between the transient dynamics of the refractive index and the excitonic fine structure.

Submerged single-photon LiDAR imaging sensor used for real-time 3D scene reconstruction in scattering underwater environments.

We demonstrate a fully submerged underwater LiDAR transceiver system based on single-photon detection technologies. The LiDAR imaging system used a silicon single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detector array fabricated in complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology to measure photon time-of-flight using picosecond resolution time-correlated single-photon counting. The SPAD detector array was directly interfaced to a Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) for real-time image reconstruction capability. Experiments were performed with the transceiver system and target objects immersed in a water tank at a depth of 1.8 meters, with the targets placed at a stand-off distance of approximately 3 meters. The transceiver used a picosecond pulsed laser source with a central wavelength of 532 nm, operating at a repetition rate of 20 MHz and average optical power of up to 52 mW, dependent on scattering conditions. Three-dimensional imaging was demonstrated by implementing a joint surface detection and distance estimation algorithm for real-time processing and visualization, which achieved images of stationary targets with up to 7.5 attenuation lengths between the transceiver and the target. The average processing time per frame was approximately 33 ms, allowing real-time three-dimensional video demonstrations of moving targets at ten frames per second at up to 5.5 attenuation lengths between transceiver and target.

Distributing Polarization-Entangled Photon Pairs with High Rate Over Long Distances through Standard Telecommunication Fiber

Entanglement distribution over long distances is essential for many quantum communication schemes like quantum teleportation, some variants of quantum key distribution, or implementations of a quantum internet. Distributing entanglement through standard telecommunication fiber is particularly important for quantum key distribution protocols with low vulnerability over metropolitan distances. However, entanglement distribution over long distance through optical fiber so far could only be accomplished with moderate photon pair rates. In this work, we present entanglement distribution over 50km of standard telecommunication fiber with pair rate more than 10,000 s$^{-1}$ using a bright non-degenerate photon pair source. Signal and idler wavelengths of this source are optimized for low dispersion in optical fiber and high efficiency for single-photon avalanche diode detectors, respectively. The resulting modest hardware requirement and high rate of detected entangled photon pairs could significantly enhance practical entanglement-based quantum key distribution in existing metropolitan fiber networks.

Ion Microbeam Studies of Charge Transport in Semiconductor Radiation Detectors With Three-Dimensional Structures: An Example of LGAD

The development of semiconductor detectors with an increased tolerance to high radiation levels often results in devices that deviate significantly from those of the classical design with planar electrodes. Decreasing the charge drift distance and/or introducing localised charge multiplication volumes are two detector development strategies that are often used in an attempt to increase the device radiation hardness. However, such approaches result in a more complex three-dimensional distribution of electrodes and sensitive detector volumes, which presents a challenge for the microscopic characterisation of charge transport properties. IBIC (ion beam-induced charge) is one of the available microscopic characterisation techniques that utilises focused, MeV energy range ions to probe charge transport. Here we used IBIC to probe different detector depths by varying the ion energy and/or angle of incidence and to probe certain detector regions by ions of the same range but with different stopping powers. These investigations are particularly important for studying low gain avalanche diode (LGAD) detectors, where measured interpad distances change with proton energy and where an increased carrier density results in changes in the charge multiplication, which are studied in this work.

Observations with the Southern Connecticut Stellar Interferometer. I. Instrument Description and First Results

Abstract We discuss the design, construction, and operation of a new intensity interferometer, based on the campus of Southern Connecticut State University in New Haven, Connecticut. While this paper will focus on observations taken with an original two-telescope configuration, the current instrumentation consists of three portable 0.6 m Dobsonian telescopes with single-photon avalanche diode detectors located at the Newtonian focus of each telescope. Photons detected at each station are time stamped and read out with timing correlators that can give cross-correlations in timing to a precision of 48 ps. We detail our observations to date with the system, which has now been successfully used at our university in 16 nights of observing. Components of the instrument were also deployed on one occasion at Lowell Observatory, where the Perkins and Hall telescopes were made to function as an intensity interferometer. We characterize the performance of the instrument in detail. In total, the observations indicate the detection of a correlation peak at the level of 6.76σ when observing unresolved stars, and consistency with partial or no detection when observing at a baseline sufficient to resolve the star. Using these measurements, we conclude that the angular diameter of Arcturus is larger than 15 mas and that of Vega is between 0.8 and 17 mas. While the uncertainties are large at this point, both results are consistent with measures from amplitude-based long baseline optical interferometers.

TCAD simulations of non-irradiated and irradiated low-gain avalanche diodes and comparison with measurements

In this work, the results of Technology-CAD (TCAD) device-level simulations of non-irradiated and irradiated Low-Gain Avalanche Diode (LGAD) detectors and their validation against experimental data will be presented. Thanks to the intrinsic multiplication of the charge within these silicon sensors, it is possible to improve the signal to noise ratio thus limiting its drastic reduction with fluence, as it happens instead for standard silicon detectors. Therefore, special attention has been devoted to the choice of the avalanche model, which allows the simulation findings to better fit with experimental data. Moreover, a radiation damage model (called “New University of Perugia TCAD model”) has been fully implemented within the simulation environment, to have a predictive insight into the electrical behavior and the charge collection properties of the LGAD detectors, up to the highest particle fluences expected in the future High Energy Physics (HEP) experiments. This numerical model allows to consider the comprehensive bulk and surface damage effects induced by radiation on silicon sensors. By coupling the “New University of Perugia TCAD model” with an analytical model that describes the mechanism of acceptor removal in the multiplication layer, it has been possible to reproduce experimental data with high accuracy, demonstrating the reliability of the simulation framework.

Metrological evaluation of the influence of the detection gate width on a single photon detector through optical attenuation

In this paper, we propose a method for evaluating the impact of the detection gate width of an InGaAs/InP single-photon avalanche diode detector by analyzing the probability of detecting 0 or 1 photon as a function of the optical attenuation and the consequent variation of the average number of photons per gate measured by the detector (μ¯). With a detection efficiency η of 15 % and a dead time of 1 µs, considering gate widths of 4 ns, 8 ns, 12 ns, 16 ns, and 20 ns, an adequate optical power range for calibrating a single-photon avalanche diode detector was obtained in the range of 0.15 nW to 10 nW, with linear behavior and low measurement uncertainty of calibration curve fittings for 4 ns and 8 ns gate widths, respectively, associated with products μ¯η of 0.32 × 10-4 to 190 × 10-4 and 2.90 × 10-4 to 140 × 10-4.

Single photon Lidar gas imagers for practical and widespread continuous methane monitoring

The accurate and comprehensive identification and quantification of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is an essential part of the management and mitigation of climate change. We are developing a novel remote gas imaging sensor for the detection, visualisation, and quantification of methane emissions. The sensor uses a new technique we call Tunable Diode Lidar (TDLidar) which combines aspects of Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy (TDLAS) with Differential Absorption Lidar (DIAL) and Time Correlated Single Photon Counting (TCSPC) to enable remote spectroscopy and ranging with low power semiconductor diode lasers. Our first TDLidar methane sensors use diode lasers with wavelengths around the CH4 absorption line at 1.6509 μm and Peltier-cooled Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) detectors in a Random Modulation Continuous Wave (RM-CW) Lidar system. Here we characterise our TDLidar methane sensor performance with calibrated gas cells and controlled gas release trials and we demonstrate quantification of leak rates as low as 0.012 g/s and detection at distances over 90 m. The accuracy, speed, and practicality of the sensor, combined with an expectation of low-cost in volume, offers the potential that these sensors can be effectively applied for widespread continuous and autonomous monitoring of industrial methane emissions.

Superconducting nanowire single-photon sensing of cerebral blood flow

.Significance: The ability of diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) to measure cerebral blood flow (CBF) in humans is hindered by the low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the method. This limits the high acquisition rates needed to resolve dynamic flow changes and to optimally filter out large pulsatile oscillations and prevents the use of large source-detector separations (), which are needed to achieve adequate brain sensitivity in most adult subjects.Aim: To substantially improve SNR, we have built a DCS device that operates at 1064 nm and uses superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPD).Approach: We compared the performances of the SNSPD-DCS in humans with respect to a typical DCS system operating at 850 nm and using silicon single-photon avalanche diode detectors.Results: At a 25-mm separation, we detected times more photons and achieved an SNR gain of on the forehead of 11 subjects using the SNSPD-DCS as compared to typical DCS. At this separation, the SNSPD-DCS is able to detect a clean pulsatile flow signal at 20 Hz in all subjects. With the SNSPD-DCS, we also performed measurements at 35 mm, showing a lower scalp sensitivity of with respect to the scalp sensitivity at 25 mm for both the 850 and 1064 nm systems. Furthermore, we demonstrated blood flow responses to breath holding and hyperventilation tasks.Conclusions: While current commercial SNSPDs are expensive, bulky, and loud, they may allow for more robust measures of non-invasive cerebral perfusion in an intensive care setting.

Custom-Technology Single-Photon Avalanche Diode Linear Detector Array for Underwater Depth Imaging

We present an optical depth imaging system suitable for highly scattering underwater environments. The system used the time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) technique and the time-of-flight approach to obtain depth profiles. The single-photon detection was provided by a linear array of single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detectors fabricated in a customized silicon fabrication technology for optimized efficiency, dark count rate, and jitter performance. The bi-static transceiver comprised a pulsed laser diode source with central wavelength 670 nm, a linear array of 16 × 1 Si-SPAD detectors, with a dedicated TCSPC acquisition module. Cylindrical lenses were used to collect the light scattered by the target and image it onto the sensor. These laboratory-based experiments demonstrated single-photon depth imaging at a range of 1.65 m in highly scattering conditions, equivalent up to 8.3 attenuation lengths between the system and the target, using average optical powers of up to 15 mW. The depth and spatial resolution of this sensor were investigated in different scattering conditions.