Water Availability Research Articles

Assessment of Packaging Materials for Bulk Packaging of Mustard

A study was conducted to develop effective bulk packaging solutions for mustard, focusing on testing various packaging materials with liners and analysing shelf life for export purposes. To maintain the quality of spices, it is crucial to have oxygen and gas barrier properties to preserve aroma. To address this, a novel liner combination has been introduced to evaluate its effectiveness in extending the shelf life of mustard. Mustard was packed in nine types of packaging materials selected based on sustainability aspects and subjected to accelerated climatic conditions (38±1°C and 90±2% RH) for six months. Physico-chemical parameters were measured in triplicate. Throughout the exposure period, moisture content and water activity in the mustard increased exponentially. Significant changes in colour, aroma, and microbial growth were observed in samples packaged in PP woven bags without liners and multiwall paper bags. However, no damage to the packaging materials was noted during transport testing. The maximum shelf life was recorded for mustard packed in PP woven bags with liners and multiwall paper bags with aluminium foil. Hence, the results indicated that exploring advanced liner combinations can significantly enhance the shelf life and maintain the quality of mustard.

Processing Tomato and Potato Response to Biostimulant Application in Open Field: An Overview

Biostimulants include a wide array of microorganisms and substances that can exert beneficial effects on plant development and growth, often enhancing nutrient uptake and improving tolerance against abiotic and biotic stress. Depending on their composition and time of application, these products can influence plant physiology directly as growth regulators or indirectly through environmental condition changes in the rhizosphere, such as nutrient and water availability. This review evaluated 48 case studies from 39 papers to summarize the effects of biostimulant application on fruit and tuber yields and on the quality of processing tomato and potato in open field conditions. For potato, PGPR bacteria were the main studied biostimulant, whereas the low number of studies on processing tomato did not permit us to delineate a trend. The yield and quality were greatly influenced by cultivars and biostimulant composition, application method, period, and dose. For processing tomato, a positive effect of the biostimulant application on the marketable yield was reported in 79% of the case studies, whereas for potato, the effect was reported in only 47%. Few studies, on processing tomato and potato, also reported data for quality parameters with contrasting results. The variability of crop response to biostimulant application in open field conditions highlights the need for more comprehensive studies. Such studies should focus on diverse cultivars, deeply understand the interaction of biostimulant application with agronomic management (e.g., irrigation and fertilization), and evaluate yield and quality parameters. This approach is crucial to fully understand the potential and limitations of biostimulant applications in agriculture, particularly regarding their role in sustainable crop production.

Adaptive Agronomic Strategies for Enhancing Cereal Yield Resilience Under Changing Climate in Poland

Climate-driven changes have raised concerns about their long-term impacts on the yield resilience of cereal crops. This issue is critical in Poland as it affects major cereal crops like winter triticale, spring wheat, winter wheat, spring barley, and winter barley. This study investigates how soil nutrient profiles, fertilization practices, and crop management conditions influence the yield resilience of key cereal crops over a thirteen-year period (2009–2022) in the context of changing climate expressed as varying Climatic Water Balance. Data from 47 locations provided by the Research Centre for Cultivar Testing were analyzed to assess the combined effects of agronomic practices and climate-related water availability on crop performance. Yield outcomes under moderate and enhanced management practices were contrasted using Classification and Regression Trees to evaluate the relationships between yield variations and agronomic factors, including soil pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium fertilization, and levels of phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium in the soil. The study found a downward trend in Climatic Water Balance, highlighting the increasing influence of climate change on regional water resources. Crop yields responded positively to increased agricultural inputs, especially nitrogen. Optimal soil pH and medium phosphorus levels were identified as crucial for maximizing yield. The findings underscore the importance of tailored nutrient management and adaptive strategies to mitigate the adverse effects of climate variability on cereal production. The results provide insights for field crop research and practical approaches to sustain cereal production in changing climatic conditions.

Review: Advances in Self-Preservation Techniques in Cosmetics Using Hurdle Technology

Preservatives are essential in cosmetic products to prevent microbial growth, extending product shelf life and ensuring user safety by minimizing infection risks. While traditional chemical preservatives have long been effective in protecting against microbial contamination, growing consumer concerns over their safety and potential health impacts are prompting a shift toward preservative-free or self-preserving cosmetic formulations. This shift has increased interest in developing products that maintain antimicrobial effectiveness without synthetic preservatives, with hurdle technology emerging as a promising approach.Originally applied in the food industry in the 1970s, hurdle technology involves combining multiple preservation strategies to inhibit microbial growth without relying on traditional preservatives. In cosmetic applications, hurdle technology can reduce or eliminate the need for synthetic preservatives by implementing several protective measures. These “hurdles” may include high manufacturing standards, protective packaging, emulsions that limit microbial growth, controlled water activity, and pH adjustments to create an environment less conducive to microbial survival.This review explores the adaptation of hurdle technology principles in cosmetics, focusing on techniques for creating self-preserving formulations. It highlights the role of multifunctional ingredients with natural antimicrobial properties, such as plant-derived essential oils, which can serve as alternatives to chemical preservatives. These ingredients not only inhibit microbial growth but also provide additional benefits, aligning with consumers' growing preference for natural, safe, and effective skincare options.

Impact of Microtopography and Neighborhood Effects on Individual Survival Across Life History Stages

Understanding drivers of plant community assembly and individual survival in forest ecosystems is crucial for effective conservation and management. While macro-scale factors influencing vegetation patterns are well documented, the combined impact of microtopographic variations and neighborhood effects at neighborhood scales, particularly in subtropical forests, requires further study. To contribute to this area of research, we established a 9.6 ha dynamic plot in a subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest to examine the interplay between microtopographic factors and neighborhood effects on individual plant survival across different life stages. We conducted a comprehensive analysis of microtopographic variables and neighborhood effects, with individual plant survival censused through repeated surveys at 5-year intervals. Mixed-effects models were employed to assess the combined influence of these factors across life stages. Our results reveal that both microtopographic factors and neighborhood effects significantly influence plant survival, with their impacts varying across life stages. Water availability, represented by flow direction, emerged as a consistently critical factor throughout all life stages. Elevation and the topographic position index showed significant positive effects on survival, particularly in later life stages, possibly reflecting adaptations to light acquisition and water drainage. The influence of topographic factors intensified with succession, while the impact of neighborhood effects, particularly asymmetric competition and conspecific negative density dependence, changed as plants matured. This study enhances our understanding of forest community assembly, emphasizing the importance of considering abiotic and biotic factors across multiple scales for effective forest conservation and management. It provides insights into mechanisms driving spatial variation in community composition, crucial for preserving biodiversity in heterogeneous forest landscapes.

Machine Learning-Based Software for Predicting Pseudomonas spp. Growth Dynamics in Culture Media

In predictive microbiology, both primary and secondary models are widely used to estimate microbial growth, often applied through two-step or one-step modelling approaches. This study focused on developing a tool to predict the growth of Pseudomonas spp., a prominent bacterial genus in food spoilage, by applying machine learning regression models, including Support Vector Regression (SVR), Random Forest Regression (RFR) and Gaussian Process Regression (GPR). The key environmental factors—temperature, water activity, and pH—served as predictor variables to model the growth of Pseudomonas spp. in culture media. To assess model performance, these machine learning approaches were compared with traditional models, namely the Gompertz, Logistic, Baranyi, and Huang models, using statistical indicators such as the adjusted coefficient of determination (R2adj) and root mean square error (RMSE). Machine learning models provided superior accuracy over traditional approaches, with R2adj values from 0.834 to 0.959 and RMSE values between 0.005 and 0.010, showcasing their ability to handle complex growth patterns more effectively. GPR emerged as the most accurate model for both training and testing datasets. In external validation, additional statistical indices (bias factor, Bf: 0.998 to 1.047; accuracy factor, Af: 1.100 to 1.167) further supported GPR as a reliable alternative for microbial growth prediction. This machine learning-driven approach bypasses the need for the secondary modelling step required in traditional methods, highlighting its potential as a robust tool in predictive microbiology.

Effect of silver nanoparticles in polyethylene packaging on physicochemical, microbiological, and textural properties of oil cake.

This study investigated silver nanoparticle (SNP)/titanium dioxide polyethylene films as chemical preservative substitutes to increase the shelf life of oil cake. The research examined three types of packaging films: standard low-density polyethylene (LDPE), LDPE with 3% SNP, and LDPE with 5% SNP, and assessed their impact on oil cake shelf life. Analysis of packaging films included scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The study evaluated the effects of SNP on chemical and microbial stability on oil cakes in different storage days (1st, 15th, 30th, and 37th days) at 25 °C. Parameters such as moisture content, water vapor permeability, water activity, peroxide, fat acidity, texture, and microorganisms were studied. The results demonstrated that SNP-containing films can extend the shelf life of oil cake up to 37 days, marked by a significant decrease in microbial growth, particularly mold, compared to conventional packaging films. Notably, films with 5% SNP concentrations exhibited the highest efficacy in preserving the quality of the oil cake. Higher concentrations of SNP led to an increased reduction in microbial load and enhanced mold control while maintaining favorable quality assessment indices throughout the storage period from day 1 to day 30. Remarkably, oil cake packaged with a 5% SNP polymer film displayed the most promising outcomes, extending shelf life up to 30 days at 25 °C.

Multi-Criteria Analysis for Geospatialization of Potential Areas for Water Reuse in Irrigated Agriculture in Hydrographic Regions

As the climate crisis progresses, droughts and the seasonal availability of fresh water are becoming increasingly common in different regions of the world. One solution to tackle this problem is the reuse of treated wastewater in agriculture. This study was carried out in two significant hydrographic regions located in the southeast of Brazil (Mogi Guaçu River Water Management Unit—UGRHI-09 and Piracicaba River Basin—PRB) that have notable differences in terms of land use and land cover. The aim of this study was to carry out a multi-criteria analysis of a set of environmental attributes in order to classify the areas under study according to their levels of soil suitability and runoff potential. The integrated analysis made it possible to geospatialize prospective regions for reuse, under two specified conditions. In the UGRHI-09, condition 1 corresponds to 3373.24 km2, while condition 2 comprises 286.07 km2, located mainly in the north-western and central-eastern portions of the unit. In the PRB, condition 1 was also more expressive in occupational terms, corresponding to 1447.83 km2; and condition 2 was perceptible in 53.11 km2, predominantly in the central region of the basin. The physical characteristics of the areas studied were decisive in delimiting the areas suitable for the reuse of treated wastewater.

Urban transformation of lakes and its impacts on a lake series: A case study of the yele mallappa shetty lake series Bengaluru, India.

The interconnected systems of lakes of Bengaluru, India, experience tremendous stress due to unsustainable urbanisation. Traditional lake-centric research approach struggles to capture and address this issue due to the cascaded nature of impacts in interconnected lake systems. Hence, this study assesses the impact of urbanisation on a lake series scale, focusing on the Yele Mallappa Shetty Lake series (YMSLS). Land use land cover change analysis (1993-2023) showed that in 1993, the YMSLS catchment area was dominated by open spaces (53.4%) and agriculture land and vegetation (35%), with built-up areas covering only 7.2%. By 2023, the built-up area has expanded to 34.6% and became the dominant land use. This rapid urbanisation has led to increased water surface area from wastewater influx, causing significant weed growth and water pollution in the lakes. Lake water quality assessment showed that faecal coliform, total coliform, dissolved oxygen, and biochemical oxygen demand levels exceeded standard limits with spatio-temporal variations driven by interconnectivity. Pollutant flushing during monsoon reduced pollution load in upstream lakes, but high wastewater inflow made downstream lakes, particularly the end lake, highly polluted but perennial. Increased water availability expanded the user base of the end lake, but traditional uses have declined and coping strategies of users, such as wastewater lift irrigation from the lake, became unsustainable. The study indicates that spatial interdependence and cascading effects necessitate a lake series approach for assessing the impacts of urbanisation on interconnected lake system, which is crucial for enhancing water security and preparedness for future extreme events.

Roles of copper(I) in water-promoted CO2 electrolysis to multi-carbon compounds.

The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) is promising for practical applications of the electrocatalytic CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR) to multi-carbon (C2+) compounds. Water management is crucial in the MEA electrolyser without catholyte, but few studies have clarified whether the co-feeding water in cathode can enhance C2+ formation. Here, we report our discovery of pivotal roles of a suitable nanocomposite electrocatalyst with abundant Cu2O-Cu0 interfaces in accomplishing water-promoting effect on C2+ formation, achieving a current density of 1.0 A cm-2 and a 19% single-pass C2+ yield at 80% C2+ Faradaic efficiency in MEA. The operando characterizations confirm the co-existence of Cu+ with Cu0 during CO2RR at ampere-level current densities. Our studies reveal that Cu+ works for water activation and aids C‒C coupling by enhancing formations of adsorbed CO and CHO species. This work offers a strategy to boost CO2RR to C2+ compounds in industrial-relevant MEA by combining water management and electrocatalyst design.

Impacts of Climate Change: Examining Precipitation, Temperature Anomalies, and Effects on Water Resources in Turkey

Climate change is a significant global issue that affects our everyday lives and water resources. One of the most critical impacts of climate change is on our water resources, which are vital for sustaining life and supporting various ecosystems. Understanding the complex relationship between climate change and water resources is crucial for developing effective mitigation and adaptation strategies. This study aims to investigate the impact of climate change on water resources and to shed light on the importance of addressing this issue. Water is a limited resource, and its availability and quality directly affect human well-being, agriculture, energy production, and ecosystem health. However, climate change alters the patterns and dynamics of precipitation, temperature, and evaporation, leading to significant changes in water availability and distribution. Increasing global temperatures cause glaciers and ice caps to melt, progressively depleting freshwater resources. Moreover, changing precipitation patterns are leading to more frequent and severe droughts in some regions, while others experience increased rainfall and flooding events. The effects of these changes are profound. As water scarcity becomes more widespread, competition for limited resources intensifies, potentially leading to conflicts and social unrest. Given the importance of water resources and the undeniable impact of climate change on their availability and quality, it is imperative that we deepen our understanding of this complex relationship. This study aims to assess the socio-economic and environmental impacts of climate change on water resources. By doing so, it seeks to provide policymakers, scientists, and communities with information that will guide decision-making processes and direct effective climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies. In conclusion, the impact of climate change on water resources cannot be overstated. This study aims to contribute to our understanding of this critical issue by highlighting the urgency of addressing climate change and its consequences on water resources and sustainability. This study examines the effects of changing precipitation patterns and increasing temperatures due to climate change on underground and surface water resources in Turkey. By conducting this research, we hope to pave the way for informed decision-making and encourage collective responsibility to protect our water resources for future generations.

Impact of High Hydrostatic Pressure and UV-C Radiation on Total Aerobic Bacteria in Minas Frescal Cheese.

Minas Frescal cheese (MFC) is a perishable product with high water activity and neutral pH, conditions that favor the development of microorganisms. Total aerobic bacteria (TAB) can deteriorate the cheese, negatively affecting its sensory characteristics. By controlling TAB, the shelf life of the product is extended and its quality is maintained, contributing to meeting consumer expectations. This study aimed to evaluate the individual and combined effect of technological treatments of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) and ultraviolet C radiation (UV-C) on the TAB count present in the natural microbiota of MFC, as an alternative to control the microbiological quality of this product. After production, MFC were subjected to treatments with different levels of HHP (100 to 400 MPa/10 min) and UV-C (0.097 to 0.392 J/cm2.s-1). The combinations of HHP and UV-C doses were determined by a central composite rotational design (CCRD). The model efficiently described the individual and combined effect of HHP and UV-C on TAB, demonstrating that gradually increasing HHP levels reduces TAB counts in MFC, regardless of the UV-C dose applied. This study contributes significantly to the literature by providing new insights into how these technologies can be used to improve the microbiological quality of fresh cheeses.

Promoting Water Activation via Molecular Engineering Enables Efficient Asymmetric C-C Coupling during CO2 Electroreduction.

Water activation plays a crucial role in CO2 reduction, but improving the electrocatalytic performance through controlled water activation presents a significant challenge. Herein, we achieved electrochemical CO2 reduction to ethene and ethanol with high selectivity by promoting water dissociation and asymmetric C-C coupling by engineering Cu surfaces with N-H-rich molecules. Direct spectroscopic evidence, coupled with density functional theory calculations, demonstrates that the N-H-rich molecules accelerate interfacial water dissociation via hydrogen-bond interactions, and the generated hydrogen species facilitate the conversion of *CO to *CHO. This enables the efficient asymmetric *CHO-*CO coupling to C2 products with a faradaic efficiency (FE) ∼ 30% higher than that of the unmodified catalyst. Moreover, by adjustment of the relative *CHO/*CO coverage via Cu surface facet regulation, the selectivity can be entirely switched between C2 products and CH4. These mechanistic insights further guided the development of a more efficient catalyst by directly modifying Cu2O nanocubes with the N-H-rich molecule, achieving remarkable C2 product (mainly ethene and ethanol) FEs of 85.7% at a current density of 800 mA cm-2 and excellent stability under nearing industrial conditions. This study advances our understanding of the CO2 reduction mechanisms and offers an effective and general strategy for enhancing electrocatalytic performance by accelerating water dissociation.

Fluorspar to fluorochemicals upon low-temperature activation in water.

The dangerous chemical hydrogen fluoride sits at the apex of the fluorochemical industry, but the substantial hazards linked to its production under harsh conditions (above 300 degrees Celsius) and transport are typically contracted to specialists. All fluorochemicals for applications, including refrigeration, electric transportation, agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals, are prepared from fluorspar (CaF2) through a procedure that generates highly dangerous hydrogen fluoride1-5. Here we report a mild method to obtain fluorochemicals directly from fluorspar, bypassing the necessity to manufacture hydrogen fluoride. Acid-grade fluorspar (more than 97 per cent CaF2) is treated with the fluorophilic Lewis acid boric acid (B(OH)3) or silicon dioxide (SiO2), in the presence of oxalic acid, a Brønsted acid that is highly effective for Ca2+ sequestration. This scalable process carried out in water at low temperature (below 50 degrees Celsius) enables access to widely used fluorochemicals, including tetrafluoroboric acid, alkali metal fluorides, tetraalkylammonium fluorides and fluoro(hetero)arenes. The replacement of oxalic acid with sulfuric acid gave comparable results for B(OH)3, but was not as effective when the fluorophilic Lewis acid was SiO2. A similar process also works with the lower-purity metspar. The production of fluorochemicals directly from fluorspar offers the possibility of decentralized manufacturing-an attractive model for the fluorochemical industry. With the renewed interest in innovative methods to synthesize oxalic acid via carbon dioxide capture and biomass6,7, and the challenges posed by our dependence on fossil fuels for sulfur and therefore sulfuric acid supply8,9, our technology may represent a departure towards a sustainable fluorochemical industry.

Dry-Cured Ham, ‘Kraški Pršut’, from Heavy Pig Production—A Pilot Study Focusing on the Effect of Ham Weight and Salting

A pilot study was conducted with the aim of adapting the processing of “Kraški pršut”, dry-cured ham, for thighs from heavy pigs. The focus was on the effect of ham weight and salting duration on the quality of dry-cured ham. From a pool of thighs harvested from heavy pigs, a total of 32 green hams were selected (from 16 carcasses) based on weight (two classes; L—lighter, H—heavier) and we used left and right ham for either the standard or a shortened salting phase. Salting duration consisted of phase 1 (7 days for all hams) and phase 2 (7 or 14 days for L, 10 or 17 days for H, in the case of shortened and standard salting, respectively). Equivalent conditions for all hams were maintained during the remaining phases, with a total maturation period of 18 months. The analysis focused on chemical, physical and rheological properties, sensory attributes, and consumer perceptions. The H hams had lower processing losses, resulting in higher moisture and water activity, lower salt content in internal biceps femoris muscle, and a softer texture (instrumental and sensory) than L hams. The salting duration mainly affected weight losses in the salting phase and, consequently, salt content, which was lower in the shortened salting phase, while no effects were observed on texture. The sensory panel perceived weight’s effect on hardness, with L hams being perceived as harder, and salting’s effect on sourness, with hams submitted to longer salting perceived as sourer than H hams. Consumer testing indicated a general preference for softer and less salty hams. Overall, the results show that the applied reduction in salting duration was not substantial, and future trials should explore further optimization in terms of salting and resting phases.

Quality assessment of yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) powders processed by pulsed electric field and convective drying.

Edible insects offer opportunities for food production, as they are an interesting source of many nutrients. In this study, the effect of pulsed electric field (PEF) and convective drying on the chemical composition with emphasizing the fat properties as well as physical, techno-functional, and thermal properties of yellow mealworm powders was investigated. The chemical composition of the yellow mealworm powders differed by PEF. When PEF was applied at 20 and 40kJ/kg, the moisture, ash, and protein content were significantly lower, while the fat extraction yield significantly increased compared to the control sample. Furthermore, the fat extracted from these samples was characterized by a higher proportion of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids as well as a higher thrombogenicity index, which is not beneficial from a nutritional point of view. After treatment with PEF at 5kJ/kg, the powder was the lightest, redness and yellowness. Moreover, the highest hygroscopicity, water activity, and water and oil binding capacity for this powder were determined. The results revealed that yellow mealworm powders are a good source of macronutrients and exhibit beneficial techno-functional properties, nevertheless, the drawback is their high cohesiveness (1.27-1.44), which can be difficult to apply under industrial conditions.

Tackling soil erosion and contamination within the SDGs framework: a case study of the Erdenet copper-molybdenum mine

AbstractMining operations in Mongolia have contributed significantly to national economic growth. However, the lack of adequate mine land rehabilitation practices has resulted in various forms of land degradation, including land cover change, soil erosion and contamination with heavy metals and metalloids. These issues have negatively affected ecosystems and posed potential risks to human health due to the interconnected relationships between land, water and human activities. This study focuses on the copper-molybdenum mining site of Erdenet, the oldest and one of the largest copper mines in Mongolia, to investigate the main drivers of soil degradation and evaluate effective rehabilitation strategies. By combining findings from our previous studies on soil erosion and contamination in the Erdenet area with a review of existing research, we assess key rehabilitation priorities. Taking a Nexus approach, this study explores the interconnections between environmental, economic and social sectors, emphasizing the importance of balancing mining activities with sustainable land management. The previous studies suggest that for the next 10–15 years, priorities should focus on tailings storage facility rehabilitation and soil contamination remediation, while longer-term goals include developing sustainable environmental management strategies that foster cooperation between mining corporations and local communities, enforce regulations and improve monitoring in the Erdenet mining area. The study aligns these priorities with the Sustainable Development Goals, offering science-based recommendations for managing soil erosion and reducing contamination.

Perception of Farmers about Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture in Uttarakhand, India

The development process is being threatened by climate change, which is also negatively affecting the Indian economy in a number of areas, most notably the agriculture sector. Planting, transplanting, weeding, thinning, harvesting, processing, selling, winnowing, storing, kitchen gardening, and other methods are some of the crop production techniques that farmers use. Unpredictable, and chaotic climate change is threatening agricultural productivity and the stability of rural communities' livelihoods. Farmers that are aware of these disruptive variables may be able to lessen the detrimental effects of climate change on agriculture. This study aimed to evaluate farmers' perceptions regarding the impacts of climate change on agriculture within the Almora district of Uttarakhand, India. The study was carried out in the Almora district of Uttarakhand state. Purposive sampling technique and Random sampling was used to select the study area and samples. Total sample size was 120. Data on perception of farmers about impact of climate change reveals that 63 percent of respondents reported a decrease in overall food production. Results on change in availability of water for irrigation revealed that there was no change as reported by 43.33 percent of respondents in Almora district. Availability of drinking water decreased in Almora (54 %). The frequency of forest fire was reported to be increased as reported by respondents (65 %). When we talk about crop diversity and climate change, it was found that crop diversity decreases as reported by majority of respondents (82%) in Almora showing that crop rotation and other practices were not followed properly. The wild animal attack to the crop was increased in present time and causes serious damage to the crop. To effectively address these difficulties, policy measures and guidelines can be designed with more insight if location-specific farmers' perceptions and adaptive behaviors are understood.

Unlocking the mysteries of drought: integrating snowmelt dynamics into drought analysis at the Narayani River Basin, Nepal

AbstractDrought is among the most impactful natural hazards, undermining water security, agriculture, and livelihoods worldwide. Analysing droughts in large catchments presents several unique challenges, primarily related to the complexity of land surface characteristics and data availability limitations. Conducting drought analysis in the Narayani River Basin, which encompasses a vast area within the Himalayan region of Nepal, is extremely challenging but crucial for maintaining the river basin's social, economic, and environmental balance. In response, this study develops a new combined drought index (CDI), integrating satellite-based reanalysis parameters [i.e., Land Surface Temperature (LST), Snow Cover (SC), and Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)] with a meteorological parameter [i.e., Standardised Precipitation (std_prec)]. The novel CDI was applied at the Narayani Basin to assess the droughts over the 2004–2013 period, and the results were independently evaluated using streamflow observations to validate the accuracy of the novel drought index. The principal component analysis (PCA) technique was used to determine the contribution of input parameters to the multivariate drought index. The PCA results show a strong positive correlation (0.78) between the CDI and standardised streamflow, indicating the effectiveness of the novel index in monitoring drought conditions. Accordingly, it can be concluded that surface water availability is interdependent on landscape characteristics, such as LST, SC, and NDVI, in addition to the effects of precipitation. Also, the novel CDI can identify the specific drought-affected areas in the Narayani River Basin, offering insights into its drought characteristics beyond traditional drought assessment techniques.

Drought stress mitigation and improved yield in Glycine max through foliar application of zinc oxide nanoparticles.

The impact of climate change on agricultural production is apparent due to declining irrigation water availability vis-à-vis rising drought stress, particularly affecting summer crops. Growing evidence suggests that zinc (Zn) supplementation may serve as a potential drought stress management strategy in agriculture. Field studies were conducted using soybean (Glycine max var. Saba) as a model crop to test whether foliar application of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) or conventional Zn fertilizer (ZnSO4) would mitigate drought-related water stress and improve soybean yield. Each fertilizer was foliar applied twice at a two-week interval during the flowering stage. Experiments were concurrently conducted under non-drought conditions (70% field capacity) for comparison. Results showed drought significantly reduced relative water content, chlorophyll-a, and chlorophyll-b in untreated control plants by 35.7%, 47.7%, and 41.4%, respectively, compared to non-drought conditions (p < 0.05). Under drought conditions, ZnO-NPs (200mg Zn/L) led to 33.1% and 20.7% increase in chlorophyll-a and chlorophyll-b levels, respectively, compared to ZnSO4 at 400mg Zn/L. Likewise, catalase, peroxidase and superoxide dismutase activities increased by 62.6%, 39.5% and 28.5%, respectively, with ZnO-NPs (200mg Zn/L) under drought compared to non-drought conditions. Proline was significantly increased under drought but was remarkably suppressed (~ 54% lower) with ZnO-NPs (200mg Zn/L) treatment. More importantly, the highest seed yield was observed with ZnO-NPs (200mg Zn/L) treatment under drought (39% higher than untreated control) and non-drought (79.4% higher than control) conditions. Overall, the findings suggest that ZnO-NPs could promote seed yield in soybean under drought stress via increased antioxidant activities, increased relative water content, decreased stress-related proline content, and increased photosynthetic pigments. It is recommended that foliar application of 200mg Zn/L as ZnO-NPs could serve as an effective drought stress management strategy to improve soybean yield.