Availability Of Groundwater Resources Research Articles

Snowmelt and subsurface heterogeneity control tree water sources in a subalpine forest

AbstractIn high mountain areas, snowmelt water is a key—yet fading—hydrological resource, but its importance for soil recharge and tree root water uptake is understudied. In these environments, heterogeneous terrains enhance a highly variable availability of soil and groundwater resources that can be accessed by plants. We conducted a tracer‐based study on a subalpine forest in the Italian Alps. We investigated the isotopic composition (2H and 18O) of snowmelt, precipitation, spring water, soil water—at different locations and depths—and xylem water of twigs taken from alpine larch, Swiss stone pine and alpenrose plants during bi‐weekly field campaigns (growing seasons of 2020 and 2021). Mixing models based on δ18O revealed a large contribution of snowmelt to soil and xylem water, particularly during early summer. We investigated the contribution of water from different soil depths to xylem water, using the sap flow records to date back the end‐member signatures. We found a flexible use of shallow and deeper soil water by the investigated plants, with groundwater more likely used by larger trees and during the late summer. Results based on isotopic data were combined with geophysical observations of the subsurface structure to develop a conceptual model about the different exploitation of water by plants depending on their location (shallow soil on a slope vs. a saturated area). Our study highlights the relevance of snowmelt in high‐elevation terrestrial ecosystems, where heterogeneous substrates shape the water availability at different depths and, in turn, water uptake by plants.

Geospatial based groundwater resources susceptibility and contamination risk mapping for Yeşilköy aquifer, Cyprus

In rural areas where the goals of sustainable agriculture are intertwined with the availability and supply of groundwater resources, it becomes imperative to perceive and search the status of groundwater resource’s susceptibility to contamination. A well-known overlay & index method, the DRASTIC model that assesses the state of susceptibility to contamination using vulnerability index map has been applied to the Yeşilköy aquifer. The seven different hydro-geologic parameters; aquifer media, vadose zone, and soil media, surface topography, recharge capacity, water table depth, and the hydraulic conductivity maps were overlaid to find the vulnerability of the aquifer. Results depicted that the aquifer is categorized into two vulnerability zones; low and moderate. The available susceptibility of the aquifer due to ongoing anthropogenic activities like agriculture was also studied by implementing the Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index (WQI) method. The aquifer’s overall water quality was “poor water quality”. Hence, there was no significant relationship between WQI and the vulnerability of the aquifer. A modification of the DRASTIC to enhance the relationship with WQI is proposed by utilizing the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), as one of the successful multi-criteria decision-making models. The modification of the DRASTIC model with AHP revealed that the performance of the DRASTIC model was improved and the correlation between WQI and the DRASTIC vulnerability index was significantly enhanced. The results also show that the effective contributing parameters for groundwater vulnerability in the Yeşilköy aquifer were the aquifer media and the vadose zone. On the other hand, the water table’s depth and topography were almost independent of the aquifer’s vulnerability.

Delineation of the Groundwater Potential Zones using Integrated Geospatial Techniques and Multi-criteria Decision Approach in the Cretaceous Lower Benue and Niger Delta Basins of Abia State, Southern Nigeria

Delineation of the groundwater potential zones in the Cretaceous Lower Benue and Niger Delta basins of Abia state, Nigeria with geographic information system (GIS) / remote sensing (RS) multi-criteria decision approach (MCDA) considered the significant hydrogeomorphological factors affecting the availability of groundwater resources. The factors (geology, rainfall, slope, drainage density, lineament density, soil type, and land use land cover) were ranked using the analytical hierarchical process, a multi-criteria decision-making tool. The integration of the factors into a geographic information system (GIS) and weighted overlay analysis were then carried out using ArcGIS software. The result indicates 31.5% of zones of high to very high groundwater occurrence are in the southern section, and 41.6% of poor to very poor zones in the northern section. While the moderate zones make up the 26.8% of the study area. The study demonstrates that the groundwater occurrence in the study area is primarily controlled by the interactive impact of geology, rainfall, and slope factors, thus revealing the causes of the incessant random borehole failures in the moderate zones. Thus, the groundwater resources can be sustainably exploited, developed, and managed with the help of the map produced from the resulting demarcation of groundwater potential zones in the study.

Delineation of the Groundwater Potential Zones using Integrated Geospatial Techniques and Multi-criteria Decision Approach in the Cretaceous Lower Benue and Niger Delta Basins of Abia State, Southern Nigeria

Delineation of the groundwater potential zones in the Cretaceous Lower Benue and Niger Delta basins of Abia state, Nigeria with geographic information system (GIS) / remote sensing (RS) multi-criteria decision approach (MCDA) considered the significant hydrogeomorphological factors affecting the availability of groundwater resources. The factors (geology, rainfall, slope, drainage density, lineament density, soil type, and land use land cover) were ranked using the analytical hierarchical process, a multi-criteria decision-making tool. The integration of the factors into a geographic information system (GIS) and weighted overlay analysis were then carried out using ArcGIS software. The result indicates 31.5% of zones of high to very high groundwater occurrence are in the southern section, and 41.6% of poor to very poor zones in the northern section. While the moderate zones make up the 26.8% of the study area. The study demonstrates that the groundwater occurrence in the study area is primarily controlled by the interactive impact of geology, rainfall, and slope factors, thus revealing the causes of the incessant random borehole failures in the moderate zones. Thus, the groundwater resources can be sustainably exploited, developed, and managed with the help of the map produced from the resulting demarcation of groundwater potential zones in the study.

Delineation of a conceptual groundwater flow model of the Kandi basin in Benin (West Africa): Insights from isotopes, piezometric and hydrological investigations

Study regionThe hydrogeological Kandi basin, the Benin’s sector of the transboundary Iullumeden basin, located in northern Benin, West Africa Study focusIn many parts of the world, groundwater resources constitute the main, if not the only, source of potable water available to address a growing demand for numerous uses. And yet, a basic understanding of the hydrogeology of many critical groundwater systems is lacking in many instances. Only when severe groundwater depletion or serious groundwater quality issues arise is the attention paid to the lack of specific groundwater studies. This study targets the Kandi basin, a ∼8700 km2 hydrogeological basin located in northern Benin, which is the primary source of potable water for its inhabitants, but its hydrogeological functioning remains unclear. We conducted isotopic and hydrogeological investigations in this basin from 2013 to 2019 to characterize groundwater recharge processes and delineate flow patterns. The resulting hydrological and geochemical data have been integrated and interpreted using tools including mapping tools. New hydrological insights for the regionThis study has identified the preferential groundwater recharge areas and characterized the main groundwater flow paths. Predominant areas of groundwater dischage into surface water, regardless of the seasons, were detected and areas where the surface-groundwater interflows are season-dependent were discriminated. The main findings presented in this paper are expected to provide a baseline for further in-depth hydrogeological investigations, namely groundwater flow modeling that will help understand the impacts of various groundwater withdrawals and climate changes on the groundwater resources availability of this basin.

Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Snowfall Conditions in Poland Based on the Snow Fraction Sensitivity Index

This study focuses on temperature and snowfall conditions in Poland, both of which were analyzed from 1981 to 2020. A 40-year record of daily snow fraction time series values was reconstructed using a unique and global multi-source weighted-ensemble precipitation (MSWEP) product, which provided a spatially and temporally consistent reference for the assessment of meteorological conditions. The average states and trends in snow fraction and temperature were analyzed across several years, focusing on the 6-month cold season (November–April). The impact of temperature on the snow fraction pattern was assessed by introducing a snow fraction sensitivity index. To predict short-term changes in snow conditions, a proxy model was established; it incorporated historical trends in the snow fraction as well as its mean state. This study provides clear evidence that the snow fraction is principally controlled by increases in temperature. A warming climate will thus cause a decline in the snow fraction, as we observed in vast lowland areas. Given the ongoing global warming, by the 2050s, snow-dominated areas may go from covering 86% to only 30% of the country’s surface; they will be converted into transient rain–snow areas. Our results demonstrate that a decline in snow water resources has already occurred, and these resources are expected to diminish further in the near future. New insights into the sensitivity of the snow fraction to climate warming will expand our collective knowledge of the magnitude and spatial extent of snow degradation. Such widespread changes have implications for the timing and availability of soil and groundwater resources as well as the timing and likelihood of floods and droughts. Thus, these findings will provide valuable information that can inform environmental managers of the importance of changing snowfall conditions, guiding them to include this aspect in future climate adaptation strategies.

Integrated GIS-based and water quality index for evaluation of groundwater quality in the coastal slum settlements of Lagos, Nigeria

This study aimed to identify drinking water suitability through a statistical and water quality index (WQI) approach in coastal slum settlements in Lagos, Nigeria. A total of 250 borehole groundwater samples collected for drinking purposes during the wet (125) and dry (125) seasons were analysed for their physical and chemical properties from 2019 to 2020. The physical and chemical characterisation of the region was conducted based on the correlation matrix, scree plot, PCA, Q-mode HCA, and ROC curve to identify the types of weathering, the influence of rock on precipitation and evaporation, and types of reactions that affect groundwater composition. The analytical mean concentration results revealed that SO4, Cl, TH, NO3, TDS, and PO4 surpassed the USEPA and WHO permissible limits in both seasons. The WQI results demonstrate that 7.6% and 6.7% of water samples fall into the excellent category, while 12.4% and 11.5% are moderately tolerable. In contrast, for both seasons, >100% of the samples fell into the unsuitable drinking category across SA1-SA5, SB1-SB5, SC1-SC5, SD1−SD5, and SE1−SE5. Groundwater quality mainly deteriorates due to anthropogenic activities and climatic variability. The spatial variation map indicates that groundwater quality is primarily affected during the wet season and, to a lesser extent, in a few slums during the dry season. Seawater influx in coastline areas has been identified as the main factor threatening the quality and availability of groundwater resources. As a result, the groundwater quality is mostly poor to unsuitable, and this study confirms its unsuitability for drinking. Hence, this study serves as a guide for effective action in sustainable groundwater management.

Estimation of groundwater recharge from groundwater level fluctuations and baseflow rates around Mount Meru, Tanzania

Estimating groundwater recharge, direct runoff and baseflow is essential for understanding groundwater resource availability and managing groundwater systems. This study estimates groundwater recharge, direct runoff and baseflow on two slopes of Mount Meru: the northern and southern slopes using the water-table fluctuation (WTF) method and baseflow separation technique. High-frequency groundwater level measurements in five shallow wells over three hydrological years from 2018 to 2021 were analysed, while streamflow data in four gauging stations over nine hydrological years from 2010 to 2019 were used. The results of the WTF method show that the aquifer undergoes an average recharge of 544 mm/year and 90 mm/year on the south-western and north-eastern slopes, respectively. On average, this recharge is about 53% and 13% of the annual rainfall on each slope. The baseflow results show that the aquifer on the south-eastern and north-western slopes recharges an average of 88 mm/year and 54 mm/year, respectively, which is on average about 12% and 7% of annual rainfall, respectively. In general, the high recharge on the south-western slope is attributed to the high rainfall, and the high hydraulic conductivity and high hydraulic diffusivity of the pyroclastic deposits compared to the debris avalanche deposits on the north-eastern slope. In addition, debris avalanche deposits show homogeneous recharge conditions, while pyroclastic deposits show heterogeneous recharge conditions. The WTF method can be useful to identify areas of preferential recharge so that preferential groundwater flow paths can be mapped for focused recharge of surface runoff during the rainy season.

Arizona Groundwater Explorer: interactive maps for evaluating the historical and current groundwater conditions in wells in Arizona, USA

Groundwater is an important water source in Arizona, accounting for about 41% of water use in this mostly arid-to-semiarid state in the southwestern United States, and the availability of groundwater resources in the state is a concern. To provide accessible information from depth-to-groundwater data, a series of web-based interactive maps were developed, called the Arizona Groundwater Explorer (AGEx). Scripts were written to harmonize and synthesize groundwater datasets from the two largest publicly available sources, subset these data to address different groundwater availability questions, and display the results in online, interactive maps. The combined dataset contained 1,820,122 depth-to-groundwater measurements from 1891 through 2022 from 41,918 wells in Arizona. Data views are provided for 20 topics, including recent (2020 or later) depth to groundwater (4,569 wells), historical (pre-1950) depth to groundwater (4,287 wells), wells with long-term (≥50 years) records (1,183 wells), wells with recent groundwater level decline (277 wells), wells with recent groundwater level rise (120 wells), and linear trends in groundwater levels over ten 10-year periods (number of wells ranging from 341 in 1978–1987 to 1,208 in 2003–2012), among others. With ongoing drought in the region resulting in declining surface-water supplies in Arizona, groundwater may play an even larger role in satisfying water needs in the state. The AGEx series of maps provides a nonspecialist audience with an improved understanding of historical, current, and changes in groundwater levels in Arizona.

A triangulation approach for groundwater potential evaluation using geospatial technology and multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) in Edo State, Nigeria

The quality and availability of groundwater resources are under extreme pressure as a result of growing urbanisation and population. The creation of lithological, structural, and geomorphological maps is made easier by satellite-based remote sensing data, notably at a regional level. This study uses the analytical hierarchical process (AHP) and geoinformatics-based approaches to facilitate and analyse different layers of geographically influencing data to define groundwater potential zones (GWPZ) in Edo State, Nigeria. The generated GWPZ map was created by selecting and weighting eleven precisely defined variables (including rainfall, lineament density, geomorphology, slopes, drainage density, soil type, landuse/landcover, proximity to surface water bodies, geology, a digital elevation model, and land surface temperature) based on their effect on groundwater availability. The zones of groundwater potential were developed using a GIS that incorporated the regulating variables. Depending on the degree of groundwater accessibility within each, this was grouped into four classifications (high, moderate, low, and very low). Low to moderate levels were seen across the study area, with high GWPZ representing 18% (3135.0294 km2) of the total area but only found in the Edo-central and isolated portions of the Edo-south. However, a very small fraction (3%) of very low GWPZ was found in the study's northern region. The exactitude of the established GWPZ map was determined to be 81.25% utilising well yield data (m3/d) from sixteen strategically selected boreholes in the study location, which were used to validate the GWPZ map. The research has shown that the criteria that have been observed are what govern the asymmetric distribution of these groundwater potential zones. The study will aid in the creation and governance of groundwater sources by improving recharge techniques, particularly in very low and low groundwater potential zones.

Hydrostratigraphy and hydrogeophysical studies to delineate fresh and saline aquifer boundaries in Lesser Cholistan of Pakistan.

The differentiation of saline water and fresh water interfaces is a key objective in ground water exploration and management. Bahawalpur is the twelfth biggest metropolitan area of Pakistan situated in south Punjab near the bank of River Sutlej and lies at 29°59'55" N latitude and 73°15'12" E longitude at an elevation of 521 ft AMSL in the Cholistan area close to the Thar abandon. The study area comprised of Lesser Cholistan experiencing acute shortage of water for inhabitants and livestock as well. The occurrence of fresh water is also challenging because of high salinity in groundwater. The present study is intended to identify hotspots of fresh groundwater zones. To achieve the goal, vertical electrical resistivity and borehole data are used to mark fresh and saline interfaces in groundwater. To achieve the results 230 vertical electric sounding were performed in the study area. A total of 3 to 5 geo-electric layers are identified with modeling along with the processing and interpretation of resistivity data. In the study area, resistivity values are classified as very high (>230 Ω-m), high (230-100 Ω-m), medium (100-40 Ω-m), low (40-20 Ω-m) and very low (<20 Ω-m). Borehole data is used to interpret subsurface lithologies and to calibrate the modeled resistivity curves. The electric resistivity data indicates that thick layers of Quaternary sediments is present in the subsurface that is primarily composed of clay, silt, sand, gravels and some kanker. Inversion technique is applied to generate 2D subsurface resistivity maps to delineate fresh and saline water zones. The generated 2D resistivity maps at variable depth above and below water table and formation resistivity maps are successfully utilized to differentiate fresh and saline water zones. The identification of a saline water aquifer within sediments rich in clay was made possible by the observation of very low resistivity measurements in the southern region. Conversely, the detection of relatively high resistivity values, coupled with the presence of sand and gravel deposits in the northern section of the lesser Cholistan area, provided compelling evidence of the existence of fresh groundwater. These findings have significant implications for the management of water resources in the region, as they provide valuable insights into the distribution and availability of groundwater resources for future use.

Model-based assessment of interbasin groundwater flow in data scarce areas: the Gallocanta Lake endorheic watershed (Spain)

Aquifer systems, because of the presence of frequently complex geological structures, may extend beyond watersheds limits. Interbasin groundwater flow is often identified among watersheds. Because geological systems are complex ones, modelling tools are needed for its estimation. In this paper, we quantify the outflows from the endhoreic Gallocanta watershed (Spain) by means of a MODFLOW numerical model in order to assess the robustness of the boundaries of the Gallocanta Groundwater Body. Our results show the Gallocanta watershed is hydrogeologically connected with the adjoining Piedra-Ortiz and Jiloca watersheds (discharging annually in these basins about 4 and 1 Mm3 respectively). Furthermore, we hypothesized the presence of geological features altering the groundwater flow. Additional simulations were run to analyse the changes in the water budget in the cases of: i) groundwater pumping no longer allowed by the authorities, and ii) a potential drought scenario. In the first case, the results forecast an increase in discharge to the Piedra-Ortiz and Jiloca watersheds, while in the second case a diminution of the outflows to the two neighboring basins is foreseen.We then propose a larger and unique groundwater body, spanning from the Caminreal Springs on the east and the Piedra-Ortiz basin on the west, including a moving groundwater divide internal to the Gallocanta watershed. Monitoring the baseflow of the Piedra-Ortiz river and of the Caminreal Springs will allow to get information on the evolution of the groundwater resource availability in the Gallocanta watershed. Our results stress the importance of conjunctively using data and traditional geologic knowledge (i.e. surface geology maps) along with numerical modelling analyses. This holds especially true in areas, such those of hard-rock aquifers, where scarce hydrogeologic data are available, to test conceptual models, to derive and to infer information on water budgets and on the presence of relevant structural features driving the groundwater flow. This approach may lead to informed decision-making on groundwater body boundaries definition for the application of relevant groundwater management regulations.

Delineation of geological formations and their influence on groundwater in Umunneochi L.G.A of Abia State and Its Environs

For socioeconomic growth and environmental wellbeing of the populace, the availability and sustainable management of groundwater resources is very crucial. Effective management and use of this invaluable resources requires an understanding of the subsurface geological formations and their impact on groundwater. This study was carried out in other to delineate the subsurface geological formations and evaluate their impact on groundwater availability in Umunneochi Local Government Area (L.G.A) of Abia State and its environs using Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) analysis. The study includes gathering resistivity data via a network of VES surveys carried out at twelve key locations in six selected town within Umunneochi L.G.A. The field data were subsequently interpreted using an iteration software IP2WIN to identify various geological formations and evaluate their potential as aquifers, which substantially impact groundwater occurrence and distribution. The research findings showed distinct geological units with resistivity values ranging from 0.37 - 2000Ωm, which is indicating a variety of lithological properties, with sand and gravel layers showing higher permeability representing potential aquifers. The results of this study have significant implications for groundwater management in Umunneochi L.G.A. and its surroundings, and also provide recommendations for the strategic placement of boreholes and wells to maximize groundwater extraction and long-term use.

Integration of Geological, Geochemical Modelling and Hydrodynamic Condition for Understanding the Geometry and Flow Pattern of the Aquifer System, Southern Nyírség–Hajdúság, Hungary

Geological heterogeneity impacts groundwater flow patterns, necessitating a detailed hydrogeological framework for conceptualization process of aquifer systems. This research developed a new conceptual model of detailed geologic geometry by integrating 133 well-logs, 366 hydrodynamic data and 118 water samples. As new results, systematic 3D log correlation detected four distinct hydrostratigraphic units in the Southern Nyírség–Hajdúság Groundwater Body (East Hungary). The primary aquifer was identified as an incised valley 10–13 km wide and a NE–SW strike. Logan’s approach estimated the average hydraulic conductivity of the Incised Valley Unit (IVU) at 11 m/d, higher than the other three aquifers (3.2 m/d to 4.6 m/d). The average specific capacity of wells screening the IVU is 315.6 m3/d/m, in contrast with the remaining aquifers ranging from 31.6 m3/d/m to 92 m3/d/m. Pressure–depth profiles, dynamic pressure increment and hydraulic head maps revealed recharge–discharge zones and hydraulic windows between hydrostratigraphic units. The elongated pattern on the hydraulic head map at the depth of the IVU showed the existence of a preferential path along its axis within the mapped borders of the IVU. Hydrochemical analysis revealed Ca-Mg-HCO3 water type within the primary aquifer and Na-HCO3 water type in the laterally connected aquifer. The saturation index values indicated a transition from undersaturated to supersaturated state inside the main aquifer for calcite and dolomite minerals. The correlation matrix and PCA results demonstrated that the carbonate weathering process is the main factor controlling the groundwater chemistry. This integrated approach holds significance for future applications of the regional conceptual model in water management planning, sustainable aquifer development and contaminant transport modelling. It provides essential contributions to informed decision-making and the formulation of effective strategies, ensuring the long-term availability and utilization of groundwater resources.

The effect of climate change on groundwater resources availability: a case study in the city of Brescia, northern Italy

The impact of climate change on water availability is alarming, both globally and locally. The city of Brescia has a large reserve of water deriving from the aquifer, the presence of springs and numerous streams, for a water supply system serving 200,000 inhabitants. The aim of this study was to project Brescia’s spring discharge for two future periods 2040–2060 and 2080–2100. Observed climate components of precipitation and temperature for 20 years 2000–2020 with future data from regional climate model RCM runs on CORDEX database for three Representative Concentration Pathway RCP (RCP2.6, RCP4.5, RCP8.5) were analyzed. The future scenarios show an increment of temperature with an increment of winter’s precipitation and a decrement for summer’s precipitation. This future change in climate components will impact the water balance that impacts the runoff, evapotranspiration, and groundwater recharge. The two main springs of the city of Brescia are Mompiano and Cogozzo used to supply 50% of the water demand of the city in the past while it is occupied about 14% now. This drop was due to the growth of water needs, urbanization that affects the groundwater recharge and climate change. In the future, based on the study carried out, the results show a few impacts on water discharge from Mompiano and Cogozzo springs for the two periods and its clearer under RCP4.5 for period 2040–2060 that shows a decrease of about 7.8% and 3.94% respectively. This shows the importance of having a proper water resources management system to satisfy the water demand.

Identification of suitable zones and sites for rainwater harvesting using GIS and multicriteria decision analysis

Identifying suitable zones for surface water storage and groundwater recharge is needed to enhance irrigation water availability. This study was undertaken to map rainwater harvesting (RWH) potential zones using geospatial tools and analytic hierarchy process (AHP). The suitable locations for RWH were also mapped using the Boolean logic concept. The surface runoff is a vital factor to demarcate the appropriate zones for RWH. The curve number approach was used to estimate the surface runoff potential. The runoff coefficient (RC) map was generated based on rainfall and surface runoff depth. Weights have been allocated to selected themes of RC, drainage density, and slope. The themes were integrated using geographic information system (GIS) and AHP to demarcate the suitable zones for RWH. The derived RWH potential map was categorized into zones like "very good," "good," "moderate," "poor," and "very poor" with an aerial extent of 14.3%, 24.7%, 28.3%, 20.2%, and 12.6%, respectively. The area suitable for farm ponds was found to be about 9% (408 km2), 13% (329 km2), and 4% (244 km2) in Mirzapur, Chandauli, and Sonbhadra districts, respectively. Furthermore, 22, 15, and 21 locations were found suitable for check dams in Mirzapur, Chandauli, and Sonbhadra districts, respectively. At a large scale, effective planning of water management strategies based on multicriteria decision analysis and GIS offers increased availability of surface and groundwater resources and may help for enhancing the agricultural land use options. The higher resolution maps may be further utilized to plan RWH strategies at village level.

Groundwater management in the state of Piauí (Brazil) on the climate change context

This article aims to evaluate the current state of groundwater management in the state of Piauí, considering the scenario of climate change and its adverse effects on aquifers. The analysis is based on the socioeconomic reality of the state, the availability and demand of groundwater resources, and the level of management and the possible impacts of climate change on the state. What is noticeable is that for the projected scenarios of climate change in the state, groundwater becomes a strategic source in mitigating the effects of climate change; however, the diagnosis produced shows that the state has already been using this resource too much, but without an efficient control of the public power. This combination tends toward a pessimistic view of both the state and groundwater in relation to climate change.

MODELLING IMPACT OF CROPPING PATTERN AND URBAN AREAON GROUNDWATER RESOURSES OF NAGARJUNA SAGAR RIGHTCANAL COMMAND AREA USING VISUAL MODFLOW

Groundwater models can be used for the assessment of the impact of the different cropping pattern andchange in urban area on groundwater resource and modeling is the best tool to optimize the differentcombinations or scenarios and to select the best combination or scenario for management of sustainablegroundwater resources. In this study, three-dimensional finite-difference groundwater model VisualMODFLOW 2.8.1 was used to simulate the groundwater dynamics in Nagarjuna Sagar Right CanalCommand area. The net area irrigated under Nagarjuna Sagar Right Canal is 4.75 lakh ha. Calibration andvalidation of the model has been carried out and used to predict the static groundwater storage availabilityin the study area for different cropping pattern scenarios and change in the urban area. The validatedVisual MODFLOW 2.8.1 was used to simulate the groundwater dynamics in the study area for the years2030 and 2040 with different cropping pattern scenarios and change in the urban area. Global climatemodel MarkSim, which is developed by the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) was usedto generate future weather data for the years 2030 and 2040. The impact of change in cropping pattern onstorage of static groundwater resource in the study area for the years 2030 and 2040 was assessed with twoscenarios of change in rice cropped area decreased by 50 per cent and 100 per cent with this cropped areacultivated equally by the ID crops. These results showed that the lesser storage of static groundwaterresources in future lesser. The change in the cropping pattern affects the net recharge of the groundwaterwhich influences the groundwater levels. Increase in paddy area increases the recharge and rise ingroundwater level has been identified. In the study area, cropping pattern could be changed from rice cropto other irrigated dry crops to prevent the increase of groundwater resources which leads the water loggingcondition in the study area. The urbanization is one of the most significant factor considering for assessmentof the response on the groundwater levels and availability of static groundwater resources. The groundwaterrecharge is very less in case of increase in urban area and generates more runoff rather than the intake ofrainfall in the ground surface as having the impervious nature. In view of increase in urban area in thestudy area, the four scenarios are proposed with the combination of 10 per cent and 20 per cent decrease inrecharge and 50 per cent and 100 per cent increase in groundwater draft and simulated the groundwater fluctuations for the years 2030 and 2040. The impact of change in the urban area on storage of availablestatic groundwater resource in the study area for the years 2030 and 2040 was assessed with four scenarioscombination of groundwater recharge and groundwater pumping. The storage of static groundwaterresources would be expected in future lesser than the present storage of static groundwater resources in allscenarios due to increase in urban area as increased in impervious nature of the ground surface. The declinein available static groundwater resources would be expected 6.38 per cent and 7.08 per cent during 2030and 2040 respectively. The rapid expansion in the urban area and their settlements is also one of the reasonsfor the depletion of groundwater resources with low recharge and high groundwater draft.

Development and validation of management assessment tools considering water, food, and energy security nexus at the farm level

Given the role of the agricultural sector in consuming critical resources like water and energy, a balance should be achieved between the harvest and exploitation of these resources and the amount of agricultural produce by their proper management. Security measurement indicators are a criterion for managerial evaluating of farmers regarding water, food, and energy security nexus. Therefore, this study aimed to develop and validate a tool for managerial evaluating of farmers as the best local facilitators regarding the water, food, and energy security nexus in two phases. The geographical scope of the research is Iran. The first phase was related to reviewing the previous literature and extracting indicators for measuring water, food, and energy security, and the second phase focused on validation. The face and content validity of the questionnaire were conducted quantitatively and qualitatively by surveying subject matter experts and calculating CVR and CVI. The results identified 85 indicators for the managerial evaluation of farmers in three areas of water security (30 indicators), food security (37 indicators), and energy security (18 indicators). The use of soil moisture control, pressurized irrigation (access dimension), groundwater resources (availability dimension), and salinity-resistant cultivars (stability dimension) were significantly valid in measuring water security. Achieving product direct sale marketing (access dimension), using early yielding cultivars (availability dimension), and producing organic products in farms and orchards and attention to the calendar and planting time in the production process (dimension of stability) were the highly valid indicators in food safety assessment. Moreover, the most valid indicators in the field of energy security measurement were energy consumed to produce and transport the product (accessibility dimension), use of geothermal energy resources (availability dimension), and bioenergy production rate (stability dimension). Challenges to achieving water, food, and energy security at the farm level can be minimized using the extracted indicators and correct management principles obtained from reviewing the indicators. Therefore, researchers, planners, decision-makers, and executives in agriculture and horticulture are recommended to use these indicators approved by subject matter experts.

Post-processing climate projections of precipitation for the Po river basin: will Italy's North become water-constrained?

Abstract Surface and groundwater resource availability depends on precipitation patterns. Climatic change may alter not only future annual totals of precipitation but also its temporal distribution. In regions depending strongly on snow accumulation for steady water supply, this can lead to water constraints. We process climatic projections of precipitation from 19 models of the Climate Model Inter-comparison Project 5 for the Po river, Italy. The study area hosts Italy's most important lakes and reservoirs and is inhabited by 16 million people. The river basin is also known for its productive areas of irrigated agriculture. We apply a Bayesian processor of uncertainty, which we calibrate on a comprehensive set of high-resolution gridded observations. The processor outputs predictive densities of precipitation for selected prognostic time windows. These densities can be used in conjunction with an utility function to estimate potential losses and/or evaluate the benefits of mitigating actions. For the study area, annual precipitation will not change notably in the future for both an optimistic and a pessimistic scenario. The temporal distribution of precipitation will become affected. These potential changes result in considerable strain on storage capacity and water flows needed to satisfy irrigation demand as well as hydroelectric and thermal energy production.