Availability Of Fast Food Outlets Research Articles

Would you like fries with that? Investigating fast-food outlet availability near schools in Perth, Western Australia.

Locating fast-food outlets near schools is a potential public health risk to schoolchildren, given the easy access and repeated exposure to energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods they provide. Fast-food outlet availability near schools has not been previously investigated in Perth, Western Australia. This study aimed to quantify fast-food outlet availability near Perth schools and determine whether differences in area-level disadvantage and school type exist. Fast-food outlet locations were sourced from Perth Local Governments in 2018/2019. All Perth Primary (n=454), Secondary (n=107) and K-12 (n=94) schools were assigned an area-level disadvantage decile ranking based on the Australian Bureau of Statistics Socio-Economic Index for Areas (SEIFA). Regression models assessed whether fast-food outlet availability within 400 m, 800 m and 1km of schools differed by school type (ie, Primary/Secondary/K-12) or SEIFA. Secondary schools were significantly more likely than Primary and K-12 schools to have a higher presence and density of fast-food outlets and the "Top 4" fast-food outlet chains (McDonalds, Hungry Jacks, KFC and Red Rooster) nearby. Schools located in low socio-economic status (SES) areas had a significantly higher density of fast-food outlets within 400 m, and "Top 4" fast-food outlet chains within 400 m and 1km, than schools located in high SES area. Perth schools are surrounded by fast-food outlets with densities significantly higher around secondary schools and schools located in lower SES areas. SO WHAT?: Policies and regulations aimed at reducing fast-food outlets near schools is an essential strategy to improve dietary intakes and reduce obesity in schoolchildren.

Does fast-food outlet density differ by area-level disadvantage in metropolitan Perth, Western Australia?

Socio-economic spatial patterning of fast-food outlets can result in disparities in the availability and access of food across geographic areas, contributing to health inequalities. This study investigated whether area-level socio-economic disparities exist in fast-food availability across the Perth metropolitan region of Western Australia. Fast-food outlet locations were sourced from Perth Local Governments in 2018/2019. All Perth suburbs (n=328) were allocated a decile ranking based on the Australian Bureau of Statistics Socio-Economic Index for Areas with decile 1 indicating relatively greater disadvantage and decile 10 indicating a relative lack of disadvantage. Zero-inflated negative binomial regression models, adjusted for suburb area and population density, were used to investigate the association between area-level disadvantage decile and availability of fast-food outlets. A socio-economic gradient was identified; for every unit increase in disadvantage decile (ie a reduction in relative disadvantage), the count of fast-food outlets decreased by 6% (P<.01), and the count of the "top ranking" fast-food chains (ie McDonalds, KFC, Hungry Jacks and Red Rooster) decreased by 10% (P<.001). Consistent with evidence internationally and from within Australia, socio-economic spatial patterning of fast-food outlet availability was shown to exist in Perth, with greater fast-food availability in areas with more relative socio-economic disadvantage. SO WHAT?: To address health inequities associated with fast-food consumption, policy and practice changes are needed that manage fast-food outlet proliferation in areas of greater socio-economic disadvantage.

Food environments and obesity: A geospatial analysis of the South Asia Biobank, income and sex inequalities

IntroductionIn low-middle income countries (LMICs) the role of food environments on obesity has been understudied. We address this gap by 1) examining the effect of food environments on adults’ body size (BMI, waist circumference) and obesity; 2) measuring the heterogeneity of such effects by income and sex. MethodsThis cross-sectional study analysed South Asia Biobank surveillance and environment mapping data for 12,167 adults collected between 2018 and 2020 from 33 surveillance sites in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Individual-level data (demographic, socio-economic, and health characteristics) were combined with exposure to healthy and unhealthy food environments measured with geolocations of food outlets (obtained through ground-truth surveys) within 300 m buffer zones around participants' homes. Multivariate regression models were used to assess association of exposure to healthy and unhealthy food environments on waist circumference, BMI, and probability of obesity for the total sample and stratified by sex and income. FindingsThe presence of a higher share of supermarkets in the neighbourhood was associated with a reduction in body size (BMI, β = - 3∙23; p < 0∙0001, and waist circumference, β = −5∙99; p = 0∙0212) and obesity (Average Marginal Effect (AME): −0∙18; p = 0∙0009). High share of fast-food restaurants in the neighbourhood was not significantly associated with body size, but it significantly increased the probability of obesity measured by BMI (AME: 0∙09; p = 0∙0234) and waist circumference (AME: 0∙21; p = 0∙0021). These effects were stronger among females and low-income individuals. InterpretationThe results suggest the availability of fast-food outlets influences obesity, especially among female and lower-income groups. The availability of supermarkets is associated with reduced body size and obesity, but their effects do not outweigh the role of fast-food outlets. Policies should target food environments to promote better diets and reduce obesity.

Associations of eating behaviours, fast food purchasing and availability with BMI-for-age z-score among adolescents in Labuan, Malaysia

Introduction: A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the associations of socio-demographic factors, eating behaviours, fast food purchasing by parents for family meals, and availability of neighbourhood fast-food outlets with BMI-for-age z-score (BAZ) among adolescents. Methods: Through multi-stage stratified cluster sampling method, a total of 420 adolescents from five selected public secondary schools participated in the current study. Data on socio-demographic factors, eating behaviours, and parent’s purchases of fast food were obtained through selfadministered questionnaires. The availability of fast-food outlets was assessed using Geographic Information System (GIS). Body weight and height of the adolescents were measured. Results: The prevalence of overweight, obesity, thinness and severe thinness among adolescents in the present study were 17.6%, 15.5%, 3.1% and 0.7%, respectively. The current findings showed that a higher monthly household income (rs =0.12, p=0.02) and less purchases of fast food by parents for family meals (rs =-0.11, p=0.03) were significantly associated with higher BAZ of the adolescents. However, there were no significant associations between eating outside of home, eating at fast-food restaurants, buying delivery fast food, and availability of neighbourhood fast-food outlets with BAZ. Multiple linear regression showed that less purchases of fast food by parents for family meals significantly contributed towards higher BAZ (β=−0.25, p=0.02). Conclusion: A higher household income and less fast food purchasing by parents were associated with higher BAZ. Fast food purchasing of adolescents were not associated with BAZ. Therefore, an appropriate obesity intervention programme should focus on adolescents and their parents from middle- and high-income households in Labuan.

Fast food outlets, physical activity facilities, and obesity among adults: a nationwide longitudinal study from Sweden.

While neighborhood deprivation is a well-known predictor of obesity, the mechanisms behind this association are unclear and these are important to clarify before designing interventions focusing on modifiable neighborhood environmental factors in order to reduce obesity risk. This study examined the longitudinal association between availability of fast-food outlets and physical activity facilities and the risk of obesity among adults. This study used multiple national register data from Sweden. During the 11-year follow-up period between 2005 and 2015, data from 1,167,449 men and 542,606 women, aged 20-55 years, were accessible for inclusion in this analysis. Incidence of obesity was identified based on a diagnosis of obesity during the follow-up period derived from clinical register data. Neighborhood availability of fast-food outlets and physical activity facilities were assessed in 2005 and Cox regression was used in the statistical analysis. Individual socio-demographic factors and neighborhood deprivation were used as covariates. There were no meaningful associations between neighborhood fast-food outlets or physical activity facilities and obesity in men or women. Neighborhood deprivation was, however, consistently and strongly associated with incidence of obesity in both men and women. Availability of fast-food outlets and lack of physical activity facilities appear unlikely to cause obesity in Swedish adults. Other potentially modifiable environmental factors within specific social and cultural settings that may influence obesity risk should be examined in future studies.

Changes in Fast Food Outlet Availability Near Schools: Unequal Patterns by Income, Race/Ethnicity, and Urbanicity

Previous research has observed income or racial/ethnic inequalities in fast food restaurant availability near schools. The purpose of this study was to investigate changes in fast food restaurant availability near schools between 2000 and 2010 by school neighborhood income, race/ethnicity, and urbanicity. Using data from 7,466 California public schools, negative binomial regression models estimated the relative ratios to evaluate the income gradient in fast food restaurant availability, examine differences in the income gradient in fast food restaurant availability between 2000 and 2010, and investigate if fast food restaurant availability changed in 2010 versus 2000, stratified by race/ethnicity and urbanicity. The analyses were conducted in 2018 and early 2019. In urban areas, there was a negative school neighborhood income gradient in fast food restaurant availability in both 2000 and 2010, and across all race/ethnic groups, except majority African American schools. The income gradient in fast food restaurant availability was steeper in 2010 relative to 2000 among Latino majority urban schools. Fast food restaurant availability increased in 2010 relative to 2000 among majority African American, majority Latino, and majority Asian schools in the least affluent neighborhoods. Among majority white schools in similar neighborhoods the availability of fast food restaurants did not change but declined in the most affluent school neighborhoods. In nonurban areas, the income patterns in fast food restaurant availability were less clear, and fast food restaurant availability increased among majority white and Latino schools within the middle neighborhood income tertile. These findings suggest the need for future interventions to target schools in low-income urban neighborhoods. Additionally, reducing child health disparities and improving health for all children requires monitoring changes in the food environment near schools.

Reconsidering the relationship between fast-food outlets, area-level deprivation, diet quality and body mass index: an exploratory structural equation modelling approach

BackgroundInternationally, the prevalence of adults with obesity is a major public health concern. Few studies investigate the explanatory pathways between fast-food outlets and body mass index (BMI). We use structural...

Association between Availability of Neighborhood Fast Food Outlets and Overweight Among 5⁻18 Year-Old Children in Peninsular Malaysia: A Cross-Sectional Study.

A growing number of fast-food outlets in close proximity to residential areas raises a question as to its impact on childhood overweight and obesity. This study aimed at determining the relationship between the availability of fast-food outlets that were in close proximity to residential areas and overweight among Malaysian children aged 5 to 18 years. Measurement data on the weight and height of 5544 children (2797 boys, 2747 girls) were obtained from the National Health and Morbidity Survey 2011. Overweight (including obesity) is defined as BMI-for-age z-score > +1 SD based on the WHO growth reference. Geographic information system geospatial analysis was performed to determine the number of fast-food outlets within 1000 m radius from the children’s residential address. Multiple logistic regression was conducted to examine the association between the availability of fast-food outlets (none or more than one outlet) and overweight with adjustment for age, sex, ethnicity, monthly household income, parental educational level, residential area and supermarket density. Our results showed that the prevalence of overweight was 25.0% and there was a statistically significant association between the density of fast-food outlets and overweight (odds ratio: 1.23, 95% confidence interval: 1.03, 1.47). Our study suggested that the availability of fast-food outlets with close proximity in residential areas was significantly associated with being overweight among children. Limiting the number of fast-food outlets in residential areas could have a significant effect in reducing the prevalence of overweight among Malaysian children.

Fast-food outlet availability and obesity: Considering variation by age and methodological diversity in 22,889 Yorkshire Health Study participants

This study investigated if the relationship between residential fast-food outlet availability and obesity varied due to methodological diversity or by age. Cross-sectional data (n = 22,889) from the Yorkshire Health Study, England were used. Obesity was defined using self-reported height and weight (BMI ≥ 30). Food outlets (“fast-food”, “large supermarkets”, and “convenience or other food retail outlets”) were mapped using Ordnance Survey Points of Interest (PoI) database. Logistic regression was used for all analyses. Methodological diversity included adjustment for other food outlets as covariates and continuous count vs. quartile. The association between residential fast-food outlets and obesity was inconsistent and effects remained substantively the same when considering methodological diversity. This study contributes to evidence by proposing the use of a more comprehensive conceptual model adjusting for wider markers of the food environment. This study offers tentative evidence that the association between fast-food outlets and obesity varies by age.

Ego-centered relative neighborhood deprivation and reported dietary habits among youth

Dietary habits are important precursors of childhood obesity. Youths' dietary habits may be constrained by the experience of deprivation due to social (e.g., family purchasing power) and physical (e.g., availability of fast food outlets in low-income neighborhoods) factors limiting dietary choices. This study considers whether a Yitzhaki-based index of ego-centered relative neighborhood deprivation explains dietary outcomes (i.e., reported healthful and unhealthful food consumption), adjusting for absolute deprivation. The Yitzhaki index takes into account the total incomes to which a youth is deprived in relation to a meaningful reference group, and the youth's position in the cumulative income distribution of this meaningful reference group. The study also considers whether the impact of deprivation on dietary outcomes is moderated by the experience of symptoms of depression. There was some indication that reported healthful food consumption was highest for youth who experienced low absolute deprivation (p ≤ 0.01) and low symptoms of depression (p ≤ 0.01), but high relative deprivation (p ≤ 0.001). These youth therefore appear to benefit from being both "better-off", and living among "better-off" individuals. The results for reported unhealthful food consumption were less robust. The results may therefore suggest that youth who are not detrimentally impacted by their relative deprivation, and who have the financial means to access healthful foods, have improved dietary outcomes. The findings suggest that while absolute deprivation plays a key role in explaining healthful food consumption, additional insights can be gleaned from considering youths' relative deprivation and indicators of their well-being.

Associations between major chain fast-food outlet availability and change in body mass index: a longitudinal observational study of women from Victoria, Australia

ObjectivesThe residential neighbourhood fast-food environment has the potential to lead to increased levels of obesity by providing opportunities for residents to consume energy-dense products. This longitudinal study aimed to examine...

Neighborhood Environments: Links to Health Behaviors and Obesity Status in Vulnerable Children.

This study aimed to identify the actual and perceived features of neighborhood environments linked to health behaviors and obesity status in vulnerable children by using geographic information systems, walking surveys, and focus group interviews. The participants were 126 children registered at community child centers and 10 mothers of study participants. Increased availability of fast food outlets and convenience stores was significantly and positively associated with fast food and sugar-sweetened beverage consumption and inversely with physical activity. Reduced availability of physical activity outlets was significantly and positively associated with sedentary behaviors. Mothers' perceptions of their neighborhoods fell into three content categories: (a) changed to be unfriendly for children, (b) adapted to fast food and convenience eating, and (c) confined to physically inactive living. Based on these findings, community-level environmental strategies for reducing unhealthy behaviors linked to neighborhood environments should be prioritized to prevent childhood obesity in vulnerable populations.

Sweet Truth - Is There a Market Failure in Sugar?

A government clamp-down on sugar would be damaging and unnecessary Government intervention in the market can only be justified if there is a market failure and if government action will make a positive difference. This paper looks at several potential failures in the sugar market. These include (a) consumers having imperfect information upon which to make purchasing decisions, (b) negative externalities, such as the cost of obesity-related diseases to healthcare services, and (c) consumer irrationality, including the possibility of addiction. Annual sugar consumption in Britain peaked several decades ago at over 50 kilograms per person and is now typically less than 40 kilograms per person. Britons today consume less sugar per head than they did in 1900. Patterns of obesity and diabetes have not followed patterns of sugar consumption at the population level. There is insufficient scientific evidence to label any common ingredient, including sugar, as addictive. Although ‘eating addiction’ may be a behavioural problem, it is not the result of inherently addictive substances in food. Similarly, there is insufficient evidence to suggest that a calorie from sugar is more fattening than a calorie from other foods. There is very little evidence of consumers being limited by choice in the food market. So-called ‘food deserts’ are almost non-existent. A wide range of fresh food is available within walking distance in almost all urban areas of the UK. Some food campaigners may be unhappy about the kinds of choices consumers are making, but the market is providing ‘healthy’ options for those who want to take them. There are many low-fat, low-sugar and low-calorie options available, not least in the controversial market for fizzy drinks. Nearly all soft drink companies produce low-calorie and sugar-free varieties which are as widely advertised and widely available as the most sugary brands. Mandatory reformulation of food and soft drinks by government diktat with the simple aim of reducing sugar is unnecessary and would limit choice. Dietary information and sugar content is clearly marked on nearly all food products sold in British shops. Proposals to introduce ‘traffic light’ labelling would lead to food that is generally regarded as nutritious, such as cheese, being marked as dangerous and would detract from the more important message that diets matter more than individual items. A ban on television advertising for foods that are high in fat, salt or sugar (HFSS) before 9pm would effectively confine the promotion of a huge number of products, including cheese, bacon, cakes and biscuits, to a few hours late at night. Such a ban would have a detrimental effect on programming and would restrict useful commercial information about products which are generally considered to be safe. It would be a form of censorship. Limiting the availability of fast food outlets stifles competition, favours incumbents, and distorts the market by preventing supply meeting demand. It is therefore likely to result in higher prices and poorer quality. Taxes on food and soft drinks have been shown to be ineffective in reducing obesity due to inelastic demand and substitution effects. The cost to the taxpayer far exceeds any savings that might be made and the highest burden would fall on low income consumers. Moreover, it is extremely doubtful whether obesity, however caused, places an additional burden on public finances. Pigouvian taxes on sugar, soda or fat cannot therefore be justified on economic grounds. Such taxes are typically introduced as revenue-raising measures and should be seen as stealth taxes, not health taxes. There is vanishingly little evidence that there is a market failure in the food industry. If products which are high in sugar are widely available it is because they are big sellers, not vice versa. Consumers are no more irrational or ignorant when buying food than when buying any other product, and they are able to exercise a very significant degree of free choice when making purchasing decisions. When eating sugary products, individuals are maximising their welfare as judged by the only person who can best know their preferences: themselves. Health campaigners may believe that people should be maximising their longevity rather than optimising their taste buds, but in a free society that is not their decision to make.

The food retail environment and its use in a deprived, urban area of Scotland

ObjectivesThis study sought to describe the food retail environment and its use in a deprived urban area in Scotland by mapping all food outlets and determining where residents do their main food shopping as well as investigating the availability of fresh fruit and vegetables (F&V) (as an indicator of healthy eating) and takeaway food. Study designCross-sectional study. MethodsThe food retail environment, the number, size and food availability of all food outlets, was mapped in Viewpark, a small community located to the east of Glasgow. Subsequently a validated questionnaire was used to determined food shopping usage and habits. ResultsThere was high availability of common fresh fruit and vegetables (F&V) and very high availability of fast food outlets. Only 9% of the sample shopped solely at local food outlets within Viewpark whilst 91% shopped at a large supermarket outside Viewpark (n = 106). Walking was significantly negatively associated (B = −3.555, P = 0.008) with shopping outside the community. The majority of respondents (80%) reported buying F&V weekly and 57% purchased takeaways at least once a week – these individuals were employed, over 45 years old and had at least one child. ConclusionsThe use of the local retail environment in a deprived community is influenced by car accessibility.

The Women's Health Initiative: The Food Environment, Neighborhood Socioeconomic Status, BMI, and Blood Pressure

Using data (n = 60,775 women) from the Women's Health Initiative Clinical Trial (WHI CT)-a national study of postmenopausal women aged 50-79 years-we analyzed cross-sectional associations between the availability of different types of food outlets in the 1.5 miles surrounding a woman's residence, census tract neighborhood socioeconomic status (NSES), BMI, and blood pressure (BP). We simultaneously modeled NSES and food outlets using linear and logistic regression models, adjusting for multiple sociodemographic factors, population density and random effects at the tract and metropolitan statistical area (MSA) level. We found significant associations between NSES, availability of food outlets and individual-level measurements of BMI and BP. As grocery store/supermarket availability increased from the 10th to the 90th percentile of its distribution, controlling for confounders, BMI was lower by 0.30kg/m(2). Conversely, as fast-food outlet availability increased from the 10th to the 90th percentile, BMI was higher by 0.28kg/m(2). When NSES increased from the 10th to the 90th percentile of its distribution, BMI was lower by 1.26kg/m(2). As NSES increased from the 10th to the 90th percentile, systolic and diastolic BP were lower by 1.11mmHg and 0.40mmHg, respectively. As grocery store/supermarket outlet availability increased from the 10th and 90th percentiles, diastolic BP was lower by 0.31mmHg. In this national sample of postmenopausal women, we found important independent associations between the food and socioeconomic environments and BMI and BP. These findings suggest that changes in the neighborhood environment may contribute to efforts to control obesity and hypertension.

Abstract P126: Availability of Fast-food Outlets is Associated with Intake of Fast-food

Introduction: Intake of fast-food is associated with an increased risk of health outcomes. The prevalence of obesity and chronic diseases is higher among deprived individuals; studies have shown that the availability of fast-food outlets (FFO) are higher in deprived neighbourhoods than in non-deprived neighbourhoods. Some studies find an association between the availability of FFO and unhealthy diet. Most of studies are performed in US or Australia with different context to Denmark. We hypothesize that a high degree of availability of fast-food is associated with high intake of fast-food in a Danish population. The aim is to examine the association between availability of FFO and frequency of fast-food intake. Methods: Health survey data from the Capital Region of Denmark used in the analyses included a random sample of 95.150 inhabitants aged 16+ from 29 municipalities. Response rate:52,3%. Information’s on fast-food intake and socioeconomic factors is derived from a questionnaire survey (How are you 2010?). Information on FFO is collected through central a register using a validated name recognition method (sensitivity: 82%). Using network analyses in Geographic Information System proximity (Road network distance to the nearest FFO) and density (numbers of FFO within 1 km) of FFO are calculated for each participant. Multilevel regression analyses taking neighbourhood, individual social factors, age and sex into account are performed. Results: 17 % of the population eats fast-food at least once a week, the proportion varies between 10.1% in the rural areas to 27.2 % in the inner-city of Copenhagen. Individuals living in high density areas or with low proximity have a significantly higher risk of eating fast-food once weekly; Compared to individuals living with 0-4 FFO within 1 km the OR’s were 1.4 (95% CI: 1.3-1.6) and 1.8 (95 % CI: 1.7-2.0) for individuals living with 5-9 or ≥ 10 FFO, respectively. After adjustment for individual and contextual factors the OR’s diminished to 1.13, but remained significant. The same picture was seen for proximity, the greater distance to the nearest FFO the lower risk of eating fats-food. Conclusions: This paper shows that availability of fast-food outlets is associated with frequency of eating fast-food weekly. In order to prevent the epidemic of obesity and development of chronic diseases, this may have an impact on future urban planning of fast-food outlets.

The Geography of Fast Food Outlets: A Review

The availability of food high in fat, salt and sugar through Fast Food (FF) or takeaway outlets, is implicated in the causal pathway for the obesity epidemic. This review aims to summarise this body of research and highlight areas for future work. Thirty three studies were found that had assessed the geography of these outlets. Fourteen studies showed a positive association between availability of FF outlets and increasing deprivation. Another 13 studies also included overweight or obesity data and showed conflicting results between obesity/overweight and FF outlet availability. There is some evidence that FF availability is associated with lower fruit and vegetable intake. There is potential for land use policies to have an influence on the location of new FF outlets. Further research should incorporate good quality data on FF consumption, weight and physical activity.

Children's fruit and vegetable intake: Associations with the neighbourhood food environment

Objective To examine associations between availability of different types of food outlets and children's fruit and vegetable intake. Method Parents of 340 5–6 and 461 10–12 year-old Australian children reported how frequently their child ate 14 fruits and 13 vegetables in the last week in 2002/3. A geographic information system (GIS) was used to determine the availability of the following types of food outlets near home: greengrocers; supermarkets; convenience stores; fast food outlets; restaurants, cafés and takeaway outlets. Logistic regression analyses examined the likelihood of consuming fruit ≥ 2 times/day and vegetables ≥ 3 times/day, according to access to food outlets. Results Overall, 62.5% of children ate fruit ≥ 2 times/day and 46.4% ate vegetables ≥ 3 times/day. The more fast food outlets (OR = 0.82, 95%CI = 0.67–0.99) and convenience stores (OR = 0.84, 95%CI = 0.73–0.98) close to home, the lower the likelihood of consuming fruit ≥ 2 times/day. There was also an inverse association between density of convenience stores and the likelihood of consuming vegetables ≥ 3 times/day (OR = 0.84, 95%CI = 0.74–0.95). The likelihood of consuming vegetables ≥ 3 times/day was greater the farther children lived from a supermarket (OR = 1.27, 95%CI = 1.07–1.51) or a fast food outlet (OR = 1.19, 95%CI = 1.06–1.35). Conclusion Availability of fast food outlets and convenience stores close to home may have a negative effect on children's fruit and vegetable intake.