Automatic Interplanetary Station Research Articles

Ionization energy losses of cosmic rays in graphene nanostructures calculation

Currently, in the Republic of Kazakhstan, within the framework of the strategic directions of the space industry, fundamental and applied scientific space research is being developed, and practical problems are being solved using space technology. In these studies, special attention is paid to the reliability of on-board equipment under the complex influence of outer space factors. In the development and design of such work as docking and assembly of elements of orbital stations, remote control of automatic interplanetary stations and many others, mathematical and computer modeling is used, which is a highly effective and relatively low-cost method. The purpose of this work is to study the dependence of the energy losses of relativistic ions of cosmic radiation when particles pass through graphene nanostructures in order to predict their radiation resistance when exposed to cosmic radiation particles. The simulation of the trajectories and energy losses of relativistic ions during passing through graphite crystals were performed. Numerical values ​​of the critical channeling angles in a graphite crystal are obtained. It is shown that ion energy losses do not depend on the point of entry of the ion into the crystal and increase sharply with decreasing energy in the energy range less than 1000 MeV/nucleon.

MOSCOW INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIA ON SOLAR SYSTEM RESEARCH (10M-S3 AND 11M-S3) REPORTS REVIEW. Part 1. Mars exploration

A review of the reports of the last two Moscow International Symposia on Solar System Research has been completed. In the first part of the review, 43 reports of the main session of the "Mars" section are considered. The works of leading experts in the field of planetary science cover a wide range of scientific and applied problems - from the study of the geological history and climate of Mars, the search for traces of life and subsurface water reserves, to new technologies in planetary research, mission planning, as well as monitoring solar activity and radiation conditions in the interplanetary space, orbit and the surface of Mars. The data obtained in the last two decades has made it possible to significantly advance in understanding the nature of Mars, but many unresolved questions remain regarding the climate in the early era, the existence of the Martian oceans in the past, biological and geological activity. The scientific results obtained by unmanned spacecraft should be fully taken into account in the development of manned deep space exploration programs. Key words: Solar system, planetology, international symposium, deep space, automatic interplanetary stations, Mars, Moon, reports review

75th anniversary of S.P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia

The article briefly discusses the key achievements of the enterprise over 75 years from the formation of OKB-1 headed by S.P. Korolev for producing intercontinental range missiles to the current status of RSC Energia being the country’s and world leader in manned space flight. The developed intercontinental missiles R-7 and a closed-loop oxygen-hydrocarbon liquid-propellant rocket engine provided the basis for developing integrated launch vehicles which were used to launch the world's first Earth satellite, the first cosmonaut on the Earth, automatic interplanetary stations to the Moon, Venus, Mars. The diversification of the enterprise impeded S.P. Korolev to concentrate on manned space flights, and he initiated the transfer of development and manufacture of combat missiles to Makeyev DB, integrated launch vehicles to TsSKB Progress, communication and other satellites to M.F. Reshetnev ISS, lunar and interplanetary stations to S.A.Lavochkin NPO. In the 1980s under the guidance of V.P. Glushko the Energia super-heavy launch vehicle and Energia-Buran system in unmanned configuration were developed and successfully launched on the first try. The Salyut manned single-module orbital stations, Mir multifunctional multi-module space laboratory and successfully operating upgraded manned transportation (Soyuz) and logistics (Progress) spacecraft were developed. In the hard times of 1990s, RSC Energia under the guidance of Yu.P. Semenov saved the national cosmonautics through commercial research performed on the Mir station. At present, by launching three additional modules RSC Energia is completing assembly and integration of the Russian Segment into the International Space Station. Keywords. ОKB-1, S.P.Korolev RSC Energia, V.P. Glushko, Yu.S. Semenov, integrated launch vehicle, orbital station, crew transportation spacecraft, logistics transportation spacecraft, International Space Station.

75th ANNIVERSARY OF S.P.KOROLEV ROCKET AND SPACE CORPORATION ENERGIA

The article briefly discusses the key achievements of the enterprise over 75 years from the formation of OKB-1 headed by S.P. Korolev for producing intercontinental range missiles to the current status of RSC Energia being the country’s and world leader in manned space flight. The developed intercontinental missiles R-7 and a closed-loop oxygen-hydrocarbon liquid-propellant rocket engine provided the basis for developing integrated launch vehicles which were used to launch the world's first Earth satellite, the first cosmonaut on the Earth, automatic interplanetary stations to the Moon, Venus, Mars. The diversification of the enterprise impeded S.P. Korolev to concentrate on manned space flights, and he initiated the transfer of development and manufacture of combat missiles to Makeyev DB, integrated launch vehicles to TsSKB Progress, communication and other satellites to M.F. Reshetnev ISS, lunar and interplanetary stations to S.A.Lavochkin NPO. In the 1980s under the guidance of V.P. Glushko the Energia super-heavy launch vehicle and Energia-Buran system in unmanned configuration were developed and successfully launched on the first try. The Salyut manned single-module orbital stations, Mir multifunctional multi-module space laboratory and successfully operating upgraded manned transportation (Soyuz) and logistics (Progress) spacecraft were developed. In the hard times of 1990s, RSC Energia under the guidance of Yu.P. Semenov saved the national cosmonautics through commercial research performed on the Mir station. At present, by launching three additional modules RSC Energia is completing assembly and integration of the Russian Segment into the International Space Station. Keywords. ОKB-1, S.P.Korolev RSC Energia, V.P. Glushko, Yu.S. Semenov, integrated launch vehicle, orbital station, crew transportation spacecraft, logistics transportation spacecraft, International Space Station.

Участь Харківської астрономічної обсерваторії та її представників у радянській космічній програмі у 1960-х роках

The article is devoted to the studying of documentary facts on the history of astronomy of the 1960s. Its purpose is to highlight the events related to the participation of the Kharkiv astronomical observatory in the Soviet space program in a certain period. The chronology of involvement of Kharkiv astronomers in programs on development and functioning of objects «V-67», «Е-7», «Е-8», «L-3», «М-69», creation of artificial Lunodrome, processing of photographic materials, that were obtained by spacecraft «Lunar orbiter 2», «Ranger 7», «Surveyor 1», «Luna-9», «Luna-12», «Luna-13», and «Zond-3» are considered. The directions of scientific research in projects «Altai», «Atlas», «Luks», and others of the Astronomical observatory of O.M. Gorky Kharkiv State University are analyzed. The main tasks that the Kharkiv astronomical observatory carried out in the 1960s were found next: photometric studies of details on the reverse side of the Moon; study of the physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of the lunar soil and its optical properties; photometric analysis of certain areas of the lunar surface; photometric calculations necessary for the design of orientation systems of automatic interplanetary stations; study of the luminosity of the lunar surface. The retro-information resources, which were firstly involved into consideration, provided a chronological sequence of events related to the participation of the University observatory in the development and functioning of artificial space objects during the given period. These resources helped to specify the achievements of Kharkiv astronomers in the Soviet program of space exploration and to prove (or clarify) some little-known facts.

Development of Electrojet Engines at the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy

Among the achievements of the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, the works on developing space electrojet engines hold a special place; they were carried out under the direct guidance of L.A. Artsimovich, A.M. Andrianov, P.M. Morozov, G.Ya. Shchepkin, S.P. Maksimov, A.I. Morozov, et al. from the early 1960s until the mid-1970s at the Plasma Research Department (later renamed as Plasma Physics Division). In 1964, the plasma attitude control system based on a pulsed plasma thruster for the Zond-2 automatic interplanetary station passed the functionality test. It was internationally the first application of an electrojet engine on a spacecraft. In 1972, for the first time in our country, an ion electrojet engine was tested in a near-earth orbit (aboard the Meteor meteorological satellite). It was a Zefir ion engine with volume ionization of the working medium. On the same satellite, the world’s first tests of a stationary plasma thruster were conducted: a correcting propulsion unit based on the Aeolus engine was tested. A practical problem was solved during the ~170 h of firing of the thruster: Meteor was transferred into an orbit close to a conditionally synchronous one. The development of models of electrojet engines is briefly described; the participants of these works are named; the prehistory of studies of the gas-discharge plasma and the propagation of ion and electron fluxes through electromagnetic fields in the processes of thermonuclear fusion and separation (isotope) technologies are touched upon; an extended reference list concerning the questions discussed in the paper (primarily including works of the Kurchatov Institute employees) is given. The presented material is of informational orientation and addressed to those interested in the history of scientific and technical developments in our country.

Colorful Planets, Cometary Tail, and Nuclear Winter

After the 1967 flight of the Venera-4 automatic interplanetary station (AIS), the study of planetary atmospheres became one of the key areas of scientific research at the Institute of Atmospheric Physics (IAPh), USSR Academy of Sciences. The goal of the Venera-4 mission was to deliver a descent vehicle into the atmosphere of Venus and study the physical parameters and chemical composition of the atmosphere. IAPh scientists published several articles on the analysis of these measurements, with A.M. Obukhov himself directly involved in writing some of these articles. An analysis of the properties of the Martian surface and atmosphere from the data of the Mars-2, Mars-3, and Mariner-9 missions in November–December 1971 set the stage for a series of studies on the atmospheric effects of Martian dust storms. Based on the study of the atmospheres of terrestrial planets, IAPh scientists developed a simple model for the nuclear winter phenomenon, i.e., a long-term cooling due to massive fires caused by nuclear explosions. Obukhov took a keen interest in this subject and participated in the publication of review articles on the possible atmospheric and climatic effects of a nuclear war. In another publication, Obukhov and his coauthors provided a theoretical analysis of the possible causes for the tail from Halley’s comet ripping off, as was observed in January 1986. The present article gives a brief overview of the IAPh works on Solar System research and on the possible consequences of a nuclear conflict, which were published in the 1960s–1980s while Obukhov was alive.

Neutron astronomy: A possible new research direction

A new method for studying the diffuse matter in space based on observing high-energy neutrons is proposed. The proposed approach uses the fact that high-energy neutrons (with energies of hundreds of Gev) can travel distances comparable to the distance between the Earth and the Kuiper belt. A background of neutrons (at the given energies) from beyond the Solar System is ruled out due to decay. It is shown that the expected flux of high-energy neutrons can be recorded by facilities using the data on the density of the gas and dust component obtained when analyzing the trajectories of automatic interplanetary stations.

Radar sounding of Mars from the orbit of the Mars-Express automatic interplanetary station

On the base of the laser altimetry results obtained using the orbital altimeter MOLA (the MGS mission) and the data of radio occultation experiments of transionospheric sounding of the Mars ionosphere, a method for interpretation of the planet radar sounding data is developed. The proposed method includes a program package for numerical simulation of the process of radiowave propagation through the media under study.

Designing of deployment sequence for braking and drift systems in atmosphere of Mars and Venus

Analysis of project development and space research using contact method, namely, by means of automatic descent modules and balloons shows that designing formation of entry, descent and landing (EDL) sequence and operation in the atmosphere are of great importance. This process starts at the very beginning of designing, has undergone a lot of iterations and influences processing of normal operation results. Along with designing of descent module systems, including systems of braking in the atmosphere, designing of flight operation sequence and trajectories of motion in the atmosphere is performed. As the entire operation sequence and transfer from one phase to another was correctly chosen, the probability of experiment success on the whole and efficiency of application of various systems vary. By now the most extensive experience of Russian specialists in research of terrestrial planets has been gained with the help of automatic interplanetary stations “Mars”, “Venera”, “Vega” which had descent modules and drifting in the atmosphere balloons. Particular interest and complicity of formation of EDL and drift sequence in the atmosphere of these planets arise from radically different operation conditions, in particular, strongly rarefied atmosphere of the one planet and extremely dense atmosphere of another. Consequently, this determines the choice of braking systems and their parameters and method of EDL consequence formation. At the same time there are general fundamental methods and designed research techniques that allowed taking general technical approach to designing of EDL and drift sequence in the atmosphere.

A Prototype of a Neutron and γ-Ray Spectrometer for Studying Solar Activity at Distances of 0.5 Astronomical Units to 25 Solar Radii

The InterSONG instrument now being developed at the Skobel’tsyn Institute of Nuclear Physics will allow the sensitivity of experiments on solar neutrons to be significantly raised by performing measurements in the immediate neighborhood of the Sun. It is expected that this instrument will be used on the Inter-HELIOS automatic interplanetary station operating at distances of as many as 25 solar radii. The instrument is based on a LiI scintillating crystal enriched with 6Li, and a boron-containing plastic scintillator that also acts as a fast neutron moderator. The instrument is designed to detect neutrons with energies of 0.1–100 MeV and electromagnetic radiation over the range 0.03–10 MeV.

Determination of Typical Dimensions of the IMF Solar Wind Tube Structures on September 8, 1973, Using the Data of the Mars-7 Automatic Interplanetary Station

Determination of Typical Dimensions of the IMF Solar Wind Tube Structures on September 8, 1973, Using the Data of the Mars-7 Automatic Interplanetary Station

Results from the processing of altimeter data from the ?Venera-15, 16? automatic interplanetary stations

Results from the processing of altimeter data from the ?Venera-15, 16? automatic interplanetary stations

Argon in the Martian atmosphere: Evidence from the Mars 6 descent module

In the descent of the automatic interplanetary station Mars 6, after parachute deployment, an analysis was carried out by means of a mass spectrometer, the analyzer of which was pumped out by a getter-ion pump. Unfortunately, mass spectra were not obtained. But during vehicle descent on a parachute tether, the pump discharge current was registered. The dynamics of the pump current at the end of descent operations imply that an inert gas is a basic component of the Martian atmosphere, along with CO 2. Laboratory post-experiment calibrations of other getter-ion pumps, performed with various mixtures of CO 2 and argon, result in a probable value of the argon content in the Martian atmosphere of 35 ± 10% by volume.

Photometric Data from Some Photographs of Mars Obtained with the Automatic Interplanetary Station ‘Mars 3’

The results of detailed photometric treatment of Mars photographs obtained with the Automatic Interplanetary Station ‘Mars 3’ in three wavelengths are given. Photometric maps of the Martian surface have been constructed; a thin layer observed near the limb has been investigated.

Interpretation of the Illumination Measurements by the Automatic Interplanetary Station ‘Venera 8’

Measurements of the downward light flux during the descent from an altitude of 50 km to the ground have been made. Atmospheric layers with different optical thicknesses have been discovered. The optical properties of Venus atmosphere for different cloud models have been studied.

Preliminary results of astrophysical observations of Mars from Mars-3

On board the Automatic Interplanetary Stations (AIS) Mars-2 and -3 four experiments intended for studying the surface and the lower atmosphere of the planet with optical techniques were intalled: an infrared radiometer, a narrow-band photometer for CO2 spectroaltimetry, a narrow-band photometer for measurements of the H2O content of the atmosphere, and a photometer for measurements of the brightness distribution over the planet in several narrow spectral intervals between 3700 and 7000 Å.Preliminary results of measurements with these experiments on Mars-3 in seven periares passages between December and March are presented. The dark areas are warmer, systematically, by 10–15° than the bright areas; in some cases (the region Cerberus) in order to account for this elevated temperature one needs to postulate an increased thermal inertia in the dark areas. The temperature in the region of the northern polar hood is lower than 160°K. During the dust storm the surface was colder than after its termination. It seems that the temporary cloud layer arising during the dust storm creates a kind of “anti-greenhouse” effect.The heights measured by CO2 altimetry are in satisfactory agreement with the results of earth-based radar measurements, where this comparison is possible. The height of clouds during the storm was about 10 km, but the upper boundary seems to be dispersed.The water vapour content of the Martian atmosphere was very small, of the order of several microns of precipitable water in a vertical column from December to February; in March it increased, apparently up to 20μm. In the equatorial regions the humidity is somewhat higher than in the northern circumpolar region; the content of H2O over the northern circumpolar region is less than 0.5 μm.The comparison of photometric profiles of Mars in the region of 0.7 and 1.4 μm shows a considerable increase of contrast towards long wavelengths during the storm. This corresponds to particles of about 1 μ in size. During the dust storm the observed bright ultraviolet clouds are associated, apparently, with even smaller particles.

Soft Landing of Venera 7 on the Venus Surface and Preliminary Results of Investigations of the Venus Atmosphere

Abstract A soft landing on the planet Venus was successfully accomplished by the automatic interplanetary station Venera 7. The temperature of the Venus atmosphere was measured during the descent and at the surface after landing. The variation of temperature and pressure with altitude on Venus was determined down to the surface by combining the temperature measurements with descent velocity derived from the Doppler shift data during the descent, and by considering the data collected previously during the flights of Veneras 4, 5 and 6.

Peculiarities of mm and cm radiowave propagation in the Venus atmosphere

The total vertical absorption of mm and cm radiowaves in the Venus atmosphere is calculated from direct measurements of temperature, pressure and chemical composition, provided by the automatic interplanetary stations Venera-4, Venera-5 and Venera-6. The results are in good agreement with radar measurements of Venus and with extrapolations of direct measurements of temperature and pressure. The data fit a model with surface pressure 90 atm and a water vapor content of a few milligrams per liter. Vertical radiowave attenuations at various wavelengths are computed.

The Atmosphere of The Planet Venus

The fact that Venus has an atmosphere was discovered by M. V. Lomonosov in 1761. However, attempts to investigate its properties during the following two centuries were not sufficiently successful for construction of an adequate model. This situation has only recently been changed. The successful flights of the Soviet automatic interplanetary stations Venera 4, 5, and 6, the flight of the American space probe Mariner 5, and recent radio astronomical and radar investigations of Venus provide a great deal of important new information about this planet.