Automatic Cognitive Processes Research Articles

Unmasking the Aversive Stigmatizer: Integrating Deliberate and Automatic Cognition in the Study of Mental Health Stigma and Perceived Dangerousness

Scholars posit that mental health stigma may be the product of both deliberate (i.e., intentional and conscious) and automatic (i.e., effortless and nonconscious) cognitive processes. Yet, few sociological studies have empirically tested this theoretical assumption with valid measures of automatic cognition. This study integrates explicit and implicit stigma measures to investigate the presence of a potentially unique actor in the stigma process, the aversive stigmatizer: individuals who deliberately reject negative cultural stereotypes but still hold implicit mental illness-related biases that may inadvertently influence discriminatory behaviors. Findings suggest that a substantial portion of the sample are aversive stigmatizers and that these actors are disproportionately present among certain social groups. Thus, this study sheds light on a previously hidden population that likely contributes to prejudice and discrimination, as well as advances our theoretical understanding of both public stigma and self-stigma.

Implicit attitudes toward obesity-related cues and their relation to body mass index, psychosocial functioning, and health behavior.

Differences in automatic cognitive processes exist among individuals with overweight and obesity, thus there is a need to expand our conceptualization of overweight and obesity to emphasize the predictive utility of these automatic processes, rather than focusing solely on behavioral outputs. Implicit association tests (IATs) may afford a noninvasive method of examining automatic preferences that might contribute to overweight and obesity; namely, preferences for unhealthy foods and sedentary behavior versus healthy foods and physical activity. The purpose of the current study was to examine whether implicit attitudes toward foods and physical activity differed based on body mass index (BMI) status. The relationships between implicit attitudes and key psychosocial factors and health behaviors were also examined. Participants (N = 127) included undergraduate students with an average age of 19.05 years old (SD = 1.52). Average BMI of the sample was 24.20 (SD = 4.93); 33.8% met criteria for overweight or obesity. Participants completed an IAT and questionnaires. There were no differences in implicit preferences based on BMI or BMI status. Overall, the sample demonstrated implicit preferences for healthy foods and active words, and preferences were not linked to the corresponding behavioral outputs, though preferences were linked to various indices of emotion and emotion regulation. Future research should explore an extended model to examine how implicit preferences might impact intentions to engage in protective versus risky obesity-related health behaviors, and the various psychosocial factors that might impact the translation of those preferences and intentions in actual behavioral outputs. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Reduced processing of afforded actions while observing mental content as ongoing mental phenomena

While consciousness is typically considered equivalent to mental contents, certain meditation practices—including open monitoring (OM)—are said to enable a unique conscious state where meditators can experience mental content from a de-reified perspective as “ongoing phenomena.” Phenomenologically, such a state is considered as reduction of intentionality, the mental act upon mental content. We hypothesised that this de-reified state would be characterised by reduced mental actional processing of affording objects. We recruited two groups of participants, meditators with long-term experience in cultivating a de-reified state, and demographically-matched novice meditators. Participants performed a task with images in two configurations—where objects did (high-affordance) and did not imply actions (low-affordance)—following both a baseline and OM-induced de-reified state, along with EEG recordings. While long-term meditators exhibited preferential processing of high-affordance images compared to low-affordance images during baseline, such an effect was abolished during the OM state, as hypothesised. For novices, however, the high-affordance configuration was preferred over the low-affordance one both during baseline and OM. Perceptual durations of objects across conditions positively correlated with the degree of µ-rhythm desynchronization, indicating that neural processing of affordance impacted perceptual awareness. Our results indicate that OM styles of meditation may help in mentally decoupling otherwise automatic cognitive processing of mental actions by affording objects.

Less biased yet more defensive: The impact of control processes.

Educational and training programs designed to reduce racial bias often focus on increasing people's awareness of psychological sources of their biases. However, when people learn about their biases, they often respond defensively, which can undermine the effectiveness of antibias interventions and the success of prejudice regulation. Using process (Quad) modeling, we provide one of the first investigations of the relationships between (a) controlled and automatic cognitive processes that underpin performance on the Implicit Association Test and (b) defensive reactions to unflattering implicit racial bias feedback. In two correlational samples (one preregistered; N = 8,000) and one experiment in which the provision of bias feedback was manipulated (N = 547), we find racially biased associations and some control over these associations among White people. Nonetheless, more defensiveness to bias feedback consistently predicted weaker ability to control biased associations. We also find correlational evidence that lower levels of biased associations predict more defensiveness, but did not replicate this observation in the experimental study. These results are critical for theories of implicit attitudes, models of prejudice regulation, and strategies for antibias interventions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Endogenous attention modulates automaticity of number processing.

Numerals (i.e., symbolic representations of numerical magnitude) are widespread in our environment and are fundamental to many decisions we make. It has been suggested that the processing of numerical magnitude is automatic. Various robust psychological effects, such as the distance effect (Moyer & Landauer, Nature, 215 (5109), 1519-1520, 1967) and the physical size-congruity effect (SiCE; Henik & Tzelgov, Memory & Cognition, 10 (4), 389-395, 1982), support this claim. Importantly, these effects demonstrate that the processing of numerical magnitude occurs unintentionally and while irrelevant to the task. These aspects often serve as criteria to assess the automatic nature of mental processes. However, evidence for the involvement of attention in the processing of magnitude of numerals somewhat subverts the automaticity account that was originally put forward. To reconcile between evidence in support of the automaticity account and evidence that compromises this account, we drew on another account of automaticity. This account distinguishes between strongly automatic and partly automatic mental processes based on their susceptibility to attentional influences. In the current study, we manipulated endogenous attention while participants completed numerical and physical comparisons of numerals, separately. We observed modulations of the SiCE for physical comparisons but not for numerical comparisons of numerals. That is, the processing of numerical magnitude when irrelevant was subjected to attentional influences, but the processing of their physical magnitude (i.e., size) was not. Therefore, we concluded that processing the numerical magnitude is partly automatic, whereas processing their physical magnitude is strongly automatic.

Power and Automatic Cognitive Processing

Power and Automatic Cognitive Processing

Intonation processing of interrogative words in Mandarin: an event-related potential study.

Intonation is the variation in pitch used in speech, which forms the premise of tonal and non-tonal languages. Interrogative words are words that introduce questions. Previous research lacks clarity regarding the specific cues used in the processing of word intonation. To address this gap, this study used the event-related potential electroencephalogram (EEG) research method to explore the intonation processing of tone two (mid-rising) interrogative words in Mandarin. For this, the word "shui," meaning "who," was selected as the experimental material. To avoid the influence of the environment, gender, and semantics, the Hum version, corresponding to the stimulus material, was also adopted for the experiment. This study used a passive oddball paradigm to examine the clues of intonation information processing in automatic cognitive processing through amplitude, latency, time window, and evoked location potential mismatch negativity. The standard stimulus was the declarative intonation with a high probability of occurrence (90%), and the deviant stimulus was the interrogative intonation with a low probability of occurrence (10%). In the time window of 370-450 ms, the mismatch negativity was found at the F3, F4, C3, Cz, and C4 channels. The findings show that, in the passive oddball paradigm, lexical semantics are essential for intonation processing at the pre-attentive level, which is dominated by the frontal and central areas of the brain. The results support the functional and comprehensive hypotheses that the processing of intonation is based on the function of language and that bilateral regions are involved in this processing. This study makes an important contribution by providing event-related potential evidence that lexical semantics plays a key role in the pre-attentive processing of intonation, as shown by the significant differences between semantic and non-semantic conditions.

O085 “It's Satisfying but Destructive”: A Mixed Methods approach to understanding the Impact of Bedtime Procrastination and Pre-sleep Screen time on Sleep in in new Career Starters.

Abstract Introduction Bedtime procrastination, the volitional delay of going to bed, is linked to multiple indicators of inadequate sleep. Intervening to reduce bedtime procrastination may be an avenue to improve sleep outcomes, yet the phenomenon remains poorly understood in populations at-risk for bedtime procrastination. New career starters, those who are transitioning from tertiary education to full-time employment, may be susceptible to problematic bedtime procrastination and are at an opportune time for a ‘fresh start’ to change behaviour. Methods and results Two studies were conducted: (1) a qualitative approach to understand how bedtime procrastination is experienced by new career starters, identify barriers to behaviour change and explore themes for future interventions; and (2) a 7-day repeated-measures design to test generalisability of findings. In Study 1, data were collected through in-depth semi-structured interviews (n = 28). Inductive thematic analyses were used to find seven themes: negative feelings before and during bedtime procrastination; wanting to vs. knowing I shouldn’t; difficulty falling asleep; influence of automatic processes; consequences of bedtime procrastination; lack of self-control and technology captures late-night attention. Participants emphasised the need for me-time, self-negotiation to continue procrastinating and knowledge of the value of sleep. Study 2 aimed to quantify the relationship amongst bedtime procrastination, habit and motivation on daily pre-sleep screen use and sleep outcomes. Data collection and analyses are ongoing, preliminary findings suggest that bedtime procrastination involves both reflective and automatic cognitive processes. Conclusion Future interventions would benefit from a dual-process approach, using cognitive and behavioural techniques to reduce bedtime procrastination.

Teacher Stress, Teacher Unintentional Bias, and Teacher Well-Being Before and During COVID-19

Almost half of all teachers in the United States report high levels of daily stress from teaching, making it one of the most stressful jobs in the country. Teacher stress is detrimental to one’s health and well-being, leading to poor academic outcomes for students and a hostile classroom environment, both barriers for young minds to learn. The COVID-19 pandemic and fear of personal health have exacerbated teacher stress levels. Individual factors that contribute to stress, such as being tired or making quick judgments, are linked to the tendency to rely on automatic cognitive processes (e.g., unintentional biases) rather than more controlled processes; these factors lead to discriminatory acts toward minoritized students. In the Vulnerable Decision Point model, the root causes of minoritized students' experiences of discriminatory acts of disproportionate discipline in schools are explained by the impact of stress on teachers’ automatic processing and unintentional racial bias (URB). Current research for teacher stress includes ways to identify and reduce stress but have only achieved moderate effect sizes driving the need to identify additional strategies for addressing teacher stress, such as teacher subjective well-being (SWB). SWB skills can include mindfulness, resiliency, and self-efficacy, thus providing opportunities to mitigate the effects of daily stressors on unintentional biases by being conscious of fast decision-making and escalation of unexpected behaviors. The data includes self-reports from middle school teachers who completed baseline demographic questionnaires and various scales prior to randomization and intervention implementation. This study aims to understand how preexisting conditions of teacher perceived stress and teacher SWB have perpetuated unintentional biases toward Black students and may have changed during the COVID-19 pandemic.

'It's satisfying but destructive': A qualitative study on the experience of bedtime procrastination in new career starters.

Bedtime procrastination, the volitional delay of going to bed without any external circumstances causing the delay, is linked to multiple indicators of inadequate sleep. Intervening to reduce bedtime procrastination may be an important avenue to improve sleep outcomes, yet the phenomenon remains poorly understood in populations at risk for bedtime procrastination. New career starters, those who have graduated from tertiary education and started a new full-time job within the past 12 months, may be susceptible to problematic bedtime procrastination and are at an opportune time for a 'fresh start' to change behaviour. The objectives of this study were to understand how bedtime procrastination is experienced and perceived by new career starters, to identify the enablers and barriers to behaviour change in new career starters and to explore themes for future interventions. Data were collected through in-depth semi-structured interviews with 28 participants. Inductive thematic analysis was used to find seven themes: (1) negative feelings before and during bedtime procrastination; (2) wanting to versus knowing I shouldn't; (3) difficulty falling asleep; (4) influence of automatic processes; (5) consequences of bedtime procrastination; (6) lack of self-control and (7) technology captures late-night attention. Participants emphasised the need for me-time, self-negotiation to continue procrastinating and knowledge of the value of sleep. Findings suggest that bedtime procrastination involves both reflective and automatic cognitive processes. Future interventions would benefit from a dual-process approach, using cognitive and behavioural techniques to reduce bedtime procrastination.

“Guess You Like It” – How personalized recommendation timing and product type influence consumers’ acceptance: An ERP study

Personalized recommendation has been increasingly used in online shopping environment, and improving the effectiveness of personalized recommendation is an important issue. On the basis of two-stage decision theory and preference inconsistency theory, our study adopted the neuroscientific methodology of event-related potential to investigate the decision-making process and psychological mechanism of consumers for personalized recommendation under different recommendation timings (browsing and decision stages) and recommended product types (similar and related). Behavioral results showed that consumers’ acceptance of similar product recommendations was higher than that of related product recommendations during the browsing stage, whereas no difference was observed in consumers’ acceptance of the two product types during the decision stage. More importantly, neurophysiology results provided underlying psychological mechanism for exploring consumers’ decision-making process for personalized recommendations. Consumers’ psychological mechanism of the personalized recommendations might be divided into two processes, the early automatic cognitive process indicated by the N2 component, and the late advanced cognitive process indicated by the P3 component. We suggested that N2 reflects the perceptual mismatch between the recommended products and the target products, and P3 reflects the attention capture during categorization evaluation of the recommended product and the target product. These findings have important theoretical and practical significance for the deeper understanding of consumers’ decision-making process and psychological mechanism in personalized recommendation, as well as improving the effectiveness of personalized recommendation.

Afek Positif Sebagai Mediator dalam Hubungan antara Efikasi Diri dan Bias Atensi Emosional pada Remaja

Emotional attention bias is an unconscious cognitive process that affects the processing of information. Individuals with positive emotional attention bias tend to have high self-efficacy. In adolescents, high self-efficacy helps them to get through difficult situations. This study seeks to find out the relationship between self-efficacy and emotional attention bias in adolescents by assuming there is a mediating role of positive affect. This is because the behavior and thoughts of adolescents are strongly influenced by affect. The purpose of this study was to examine positive affect as a mediator in the relationship between self-efficacy and emotional attention bias towards happiness and threats related words in adolescents. A total of 87 adolescent participants who were also high school students (M= 16.5) participated in this study. Self-efficacy was measured using the General Self-Efficacy Scale and positive affect was measured using the positive affect dimensions of the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Scale. Meanwhile, emotional attention bias was measured using the emotional Stroop task. The results using Jamovi's mediation showed that the relationship between self-efficacy and emotional attention bias towards happiness and threats related words was fully mediated by positive affect. This study succeeded in explaining the role of automatic and unconscious cognitive processes in the relationship between self-efficacy and emotional attention bias in adolescents.

Under the Spell of Charisma: Attributions of Charisma Leave People confident but Uncritical

When people attribute charisma to a leader, they often choose to follow that leader. Surprisingly little is known, however, about how the charisma attribution process facilitates followership. Here, we draw on evidence from psychology and neurophysiology to suggest that when people attribute charisma to a leader, it has two effects. First, people tend to rely on automatic and intuitive cognitive processes, which are less accurate than deliberate and reflective cognitive processes. Second, people tend to experience more positive affect, which increases their confidence in the accuracy of their cognitive processes. Thus, when people attribute charisma to leaders, they suffer from less accurate cognition without noticing. Filled with positive emotion, people then choose to follow charismatic leaders, believing that they have accurately processed the leaders’ message when in fact, they have not. Evidence from three experimental studies involving 648 participants provides general support for these propositions. By discovering how charismatic leadership deteriorates cognition, increases confidence, and ultimately, facilitates followership, we advance our understanding of how charismatic leadership works.

Neural response based behavioral profiling of vehicle drivers to personalize alarm sequences, warn safety systems and trigger non-driver-in-loop control

Quantitative measurement of vehicle driver alertness and response readiness to on-road emergency cues could add more response time to driver assistance and safety features. Exogenous Electroencephalogram (EEG) potentials generated in Beta frequencies can imply driver’s attention to the situation, the absence of which may be associated with distraction or drowsiness. Detection of specific Alpha potentials during action-soliciting events may further indicate risk of violating response-trigger thresholds beyond which physical and vehicular response periods may become too short to avoid collision. Specific Event-Related Potentials (ERP) associated with early automatic cognitive process of consciousness to obstacles, emotional reaction to visual cues, risk evaluation, drier’s emotional intensity, anticipation and motor preparation can be identified, isolated and processed to create a model that predicts driver’s intension/capability to respond to obstacles within a derived time threshold. Isolating signals that indicate driver in-activity (extreme fatigue, sleep, visual or auditory distraction) during near-obstacle situations could further be used to preempt user-in-loop drive, in semi-autonomous vehicles, even if the driver is inhibiting normal transition to self-drive mode. Existing safety components, like airbags, could be issued pre-warnings about possible crash situations (currently they are actuated only upon impact), giving them critical additional time to get pre-actuation sequences triggered.

반투명 표피를 사용한 건축에서 느끼는 미의식의 신경 미학적 연구

The functional separation of structure and skins in architecture has emerged in Gothic architecture. The Industrial Revolution accelerated the production of metal and glass, which led to the functional separation of structure from the skins becoming a common architectural design style after the 19th century. The architectural skins is liberated from the structure and assumes the role of expressing beauty. In this context, there are some suggestions on the visual design points of architectural skins and architectural structure given from the perspective of neuro-aesthetics in this paper. This study was conducted in accordance with the following procedure. First, The concept and experimental data related to fluency theory and aesthetic A-HA theory are used to determine human susceptibility to transparency. There is a way found to generate good feelings that is semi-translucent architectural skins. Second, Determine the ideal architectural features through the "Prospect and Refuge" model based on the "Embodiment Theory" and the "Dwelling Theory". Third, Analyze the visual role of semi-translucent architectural skins and building structure based on the "Prospect and Refuge" model from the perspective of symbolism. Fourth, Found the effect of expectation on memory representation in perceptual processing through the comparative analysis of aesthetic model. Fifth, Vitruvius's architectural theory regards utilitas(functionality), firmitas(strength), and venustas(aesthetics) as the expected universal values of architecture. Sixth, In terms of memory representation, some suggestions on the visual characteristics of building structures in buildings are proposed with translucent building skins. On this basis, this study puts forward the following suggestions. Buildings with semi-translucent skins are attractive. Semi-translucent building skins should indicate that it is supported by a solid structure. In terms of visual perception, the firmness of the structure on the back of the semi-translucent skins satisfies the universal aesthetic consciousness. The good feelings generated in this automatic cognitive processing process based on unconscious implicit memories can have a positive impact on cognitive outcomes. In terms of visual perception, the stability of the structure projected on the back of the translucent skin satisfies a general aesthetic sense.Therefore, an expression with visual appeal - translucent architectural skins and visually perceived stable building structures are proposed in this study.

Motivation towards novel learning content: Perceived similarity of learning content, but not need for cognition, moderates the generalization of motivation

The generalization of established motivation hypothesis states that individuals use established motivational beliefs to predict motivational beliefs regarding novel learning content on the basis of the perceived similarity between academic domains. This study tests the generalization hypothesis by investigating the assumed moderating role of the extent of perceived similarity between known and novel learning content and need for cognition (NFC). Participants were adult students (n=576) from various study programs (Study 1) and non-students (n=628) of whom the majority held at least a bachelor's degree (Study 2). In this prospective correlational survey study, we used online self-report measures to assess participants' self-concept of ability (SCA) and intrinsic task value (ITV) regarding their established and anticipated motivational beliefs regarding a set of school subjects (known learning content) and fields of study (novel learning content), perceptions of similarity, and their NFC. Data was analysed using structural equation modelling with latent interaction variables. We found support for the generalization hypothesis and documented that the perceived similarity moderated the generalizing effect (i.e., SCA and ITV had stronger predictive validity for learning content that was perceived as more similar). However, the results obtained for the moderating effect of NFC were mostly nonsignificant. Individuals generalize established motivation regarding known learning content to anticipated motivation regarding novel learning content perceived as being similar. The extent of perceived similarity enhances this effect, whereas NFC does not. Future research should address the underlying automatic and deliberate cognitive processes of generalization.

Watershed Brain Regions for Characterizing Brand Equity-Related Mental Processes.

Brand equity is an important intangible for enterprises. As one advantage, products with brand equity can increase revenue, compared with those without such equity. However, unlike tangibles, it is difficult for enterprises to manage brand equity because it exists within consumers’ minds. Although, over the past two decades, numerous consumer neuroscience studies have revealed the brain regions related to brand equity, the identification of unique brain regions related to such equity is still controversial. Therefore, this study identifies the unique brain regions related to brand equity and assesses the mental processes derived from these regions. For this purpose, three analysis methods (i.e., the quantitative meta-analysis, chi-square tests, and machine learning) were conducted. The data were collected in accordance with the general procedures of a qualitative meta-analysis. In total, 65 studies (1412 foci) investigating branded objects with brand equity and unbranded objects without brand equity were examined, whereas the neural systems involved for these two brain regions were contrasted. According to the results, the parahippocampal gyrus and the lingual gyrus were unique brand equity-related brain regions, whereas automatic mental processes based on emotional associative memories derived from these regions were characteristic mental processes that discriminate branded from unbranded objects.

Cerebellum in timing control: Evidence from contingent negative variation after cerebellar tDCS

Timing control is defined as the ability to quantify time. The temporal estimation of supra-seconds range is generally seen as a conscious cognitive process, while the sub-seconds range is a more automatic cognitive process. It is accepted that cerebellum contributes to temporal processing, but its function is still debated. The aim of this research was to better explore the role of cerebellum in timing control. We transitorily inhibited cerebellar activity and studied the effects on CNV components in healthy subjects.

El sesgo atencional en los trastornos relacionados con sustancias. Aspectos teóricos, evaluativos y de tratamiento

The objective of this work is to investigate attentional bias as an automatic cognitive process and its implications in substance use disorders. Cognitive processes are fundamental in the formulation of the different explanatory models about psychopathology. Of the various cognitive processes, attention is a significant determinant, because although it fulfils various activities such as orientation and wakefulness, it is cognitive control that arouses relevant interest for it. This is due to the fact that it fulfills a task of linking between signal uptake and the achievement of other cognitive processes that intervene in the behavioral response mechanism. When a cognitive process like attention is markedly altered it will trigger impaired sequential cognitive functioning, along with the emission of disturbing behavior. Psychology considers that cognitive processes operate consciously (voluntarily) and automatically (implicitly); that is, in a dual way in which these processes such as attention maintain a continuum of coordinated gradual variations that regulate behavior. Failure to consider automatic cognitive processes is a notorious limitation for current explanatory models of psychopathological behavior (including compulsive substance use); given that many of these underlying cognitive processes are often not considered to influence higher mental processes and therefore behavior, without the individual necessarily being aware of this. In fact, this can help to understand pathological behaviors that for the investigator or the professional of psychology can be incomprehensible or paradoxical. Among the various underlying and altered processes, the attentional bias towards critical signals associated with substances has investigative relevance. Since it is a dysfunctional mechanism of selective attention, which operates frequently at an automatic level and in which the allocation and focus of attention are disproportionate in time, between a specific stimulus (image or word related to a drug) versus a neutral stimulus. And it attracts a person's focus of attention to the critical stimulus, from which it later becomes difficult to decouple. This later facilitates other altered cognitive processes subsequent to consumption. The generation of an attentional bias towards a specific signal has its origin in the association between the signal and the behavior, which can be avoidant (recurrent in phobias) or attractive (frequent in substance or food consumption) and that is conditioned until becoming an automatic process of difficult voluntary control. Although it is true that attention bias may be present in all individuals, the evidence reveals the marked and recurrent presence in various pathologies such as mood disorders (depressive), anxiety, food intake, phobias, of personality among others. And also included in substance use disorders. The findings show that attention bias has an impact on substance use, course, the severity of the disorder, craving, withdrawal, relapse, and the probability of treatment failure. Working with an attentional bias for specific signals on substances can generate difficulty, in the case of evaluation because it is assessed through software that usually measures the eye-hand reaction time or eye movement when faced with neutral and critical signals, which can be a limitation for the usual clinic; while at the intervention level, it is required to formulate bias retraining processes that require continuous exercise as a complementary technique to the usual cognitive-behavioral treatment. It is considered necessary to explore this line of research and its relationship with substance use disorders within the region. https://doi.org/10.16888/interd.2022.39.1.5

A brief report on the promise of system 2 cues for impacting teacher decision-making in school discipline practices for Black male youth.

Despite the evidence implicating implicit racial bias in teacher decision-making as one reason for the overrepresentation of Black male students in school discipline practices, there is minimal research regarding interventions that address implicit racial bias in the school setting. A System 2 cue refers to a behavioral cue that engages more deliberate and controlled cognitive processes in decision-making and mitigates the impact of unconscious racial bias in decision-making, in contrast to System 1 processing which employs more automatic cognitive processes. This pilot study evaluated the use of a System 2 cue in teacher decision-making and included 361 practicing teachers. All participants read a vignette describing a Black male student's behavior and were then assigned to a control condition or the System 2 cue condition. Differences in teacher perception of troublesome behavior were analyzed with independent samples t test and likelihood of completing an office discipline referral was compared with binary logistic regression. Results indicate that addition of a System 2 cue predicted ODR likelihood, but perception of troublesome behavior was more predictive and explained the relationship between System 2 cue and referral likelihood. Further, we found differences in two aspects of troublesome behavior perception (i.e., level of concern and belief that the behavior will occur again in the future) for teachers receiving a System 2 cue compared to those who did not, preliminarily suggesting that some perceptions of troublesome behavior may be alterable through System 2 cues. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).