Autism Spectrum Quotient Scores Research Articles

Autism Spectrum Traits in the Typical Population Predict Structure and Function in the Posterior Superior Temporal Sulcus

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are typically characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, narrow interests, and repetitive behaviors. The heterogeneity in the severity of these characteristics across individuals with ASD has led some researchers to suggest that these disorders form a continuum which extends into the general, or “typical,” population, and there is growing evidence that the extent to which typical adults display autistic traits, as measured using the autism-spectrum quotient (AQ), predicts performance on behavioral tasks that are impaired in ASD. Here, we show that variation in autism spectrum traits is related to cortical structure and function within the typical population. Voxel-based morphometry showed that increased AQ scores were associated with decreased white matter volume in the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS), a region important in processing socially relevant stimuli and associated with structural and functional impairments in ASD. In addition, AQ was correlated with the extent of cortical deactivation of an adjacent area of pSTS during a Stroop task relative to rest, reflecting variation in resting state function. The results provide evidence that autism spectrum characteristics are reflected in neural structure and function across the typical (non-ASD) population.

Early non‐specific modulation of corticospinal excitability during action observation

Activity of the primary motor cortex (M1) during action observation is thought to reflect motor resonance. Here, we conducted three studies using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)-induced motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) of the first dorsal interosseus muscle (FDI) during action observation to determine: (i) the time course of M1 corticospinal excitability during the observation of a simple finger movement; (ii) the specificity of M1 modulation in terms of type of movement and muscle; and (iii) the relationship between M1 activity and measures of empathy and autistic traits. In a first study, we administered single-pulse TMS at 30-ms intervals during the observation of simple finger movements. Results showed enhanced corticospinal excitability occurring between 60 and 90 ms after movement onset. In a second experiment, TMS-induced MEPs were recorded from the FDI and abductor digiti minimi muscles while pulses were delivered 90 ms after movement onset during observation of simple finger movement and dot movement. Increased corticospinal excitability was restricted to finger movement and was present in both muscles. Finally, in an exploratory experiment, single-pulse TMS was administered at 30, 90 and 150 ms after movement onset, and participants were asked to complete the Empathy Quotient (EQ) and the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Correlational analysis revealed a significant link between motor facilitation at 90 ms and the EQ and AQ scores. These results suggest that corticospinal excitability modulation seen at M1 during action observation is the result of a rapid and crude automatic process, which may be related to social functioning.

‘Familiar or risky’: The Asperger syndrome affects exploratory consumer behaviour

The objective of this study is to assess whether Asperger-syndrome characteristics negatively affect exploratory consumer behaviour. The Asperger syndrome is a complex autism syndrome leading to restrictions in people’s (non-)verbal communication, imagination, and acquisition and maintenance of social contacts. Exploratory consumer behaviour is defined as the behaviour to discover and to try new products or services. The results show that higher Autism-Spectrum Quotient scores, indicating the Asperger syndrome, lead to lower tendencies for exploratory consumer behaviour, both in general and on six of the seven subscales (repetitive behaviour proneness, innovativeness, risk taking, exploration through shopping, interpersonal communication, and brand switching). Asperger is not a distinct disorder, but many people have a few autism characteristics. This means that these results are relevant for a much larger group than just the people with an Asperger-syndrome diagnosis.

Smaller insula and inferior frontal volumes in young adults with pervasive developmental disorders

Enlarged head circumference and increased brain weight have been reported in infants with pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), and volumetric studies suggest that children with PDD have abnormally enlarged brain volumes. However, little is known about brain volume abnormalities in young adults with PDD. We explored gray matter (GM) volume in young adults with PDD. T1-weighted volumetric images were acquired with a 3-T magnetic resonance scanner from 32 males with high-functioning PDD (23.8±4.2 years; Full Scale Intelligence Quotient [FSIQ]=101.6±15.6) and 40 age-matched normal male control subjects (22.5±4.3 years; FSIQ=109.7±7.9). Regional GM volumes were compared between the two groups using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) with the Diffeomorphic Anatomical Registration using Exponentiated Lie algebra (DARTEL). Compared with the control group, the high-functioning PDD group showed significantly less GM in the right insula, the right inferior frontal gyrus, and the right inferior parietal lobule. A conservative threshold confirmed considerably smaller volumes in the right insula and inferior frontal gyrus. In these areas, negative correlations were found between Autism Spectrum Quotient scores and GM volume, although no significant correlations were found between each subject's FSIQ and GM volume. No regions showed greater GM volumes in the high-functioning PDD group. The insular cortex, which works as a relay area for multiple neurocognitive systems, may be one of the key regions underlying the complex clinical features of PDD. These smaller GM volumes in high-functioning PDD subjects may reflect the clinical features of PDD itself, rather than FSIQ.

Defining the broader, medium and narrow autism phenotype among parents using the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ)

BackgroundThe Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) is a self-report questionnaire for quantifying autistic traits. This study tests whether the AQ can differentiate between parents of children with an autism spectrum condition (ASC) and control parents. In this paper, the use of the AQ to define the broader, medium and narrow autism phenotypes (BAP, MAP, NAP) is reported, and the proportion of parents with each phenotype is compared between the two groups.MethodsA sample of 571 fathers and 1429 mothers of children with an ASC completed the AQ, along with 349 fathers and 658 mothers of developing typically children.ResultsBoth mothers and fathers of the diagnosed children scored higher than the control parents on total AQ score and on four out of five of the subscales. Additionally, there were more parents of diagnosed children with a BAP, MAP or NAP.ConclusionsThe AQ provides an efficient method for quantifying where an individual lies along the dimension of autistic traits, and extends the notion of a broader phenotype among first-degree relatives of those with ASC. The AQ is likely to have many applications, including population and clinical screening, and stratification in genetic studies.

Broader Autism Phenotype and Nonverbal Sensitivity: Evidence for an Association in the General Population

This study examined the relationship between characteristics of the Broader Autism Phenotype (BAP) and nonverbal sensitivity, the ability to interpret nonverbal aspects of communication, in a non-clinical sample of college students. One hundred and two participants completed a self-report measure of the BAP, the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ), and two tests of nonverbal sensitivity, the Test of Nonverbal Cue Knowledge (TONCK), and the Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy 2 (DANVA2). AQ score was correlated with TONCK performance and number of errors on the adult faces subtest of the DANVA2, but not adult paralanguage or postures. These findings suggest that characteristics of ASD in the general population are associated with differences in both explicit and implicit knowledge of nonverbal cues.

Using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient to Discriminate Autism Spectrum Disorder from ADHD in Adult Patients With and Without Comorbid Substance Use Disorder

It is unknown whether the Autism-spectrum quotient (AQ) can discriminate between Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) with or without comorbid Substance Use Disorder (SUD). ANOVA’s were used to analyse the mean AQ (sub)scores of 129 adults with ASD or ADHD. We applied receiver operating characteristic (ROC) computations to assess discriminant power. All but one of the mean AQ (sub)scores were significantly higher for adults with ASD compared to those with ADHD. The SUD status in general was not significantly associated with AQ (sub)scores. On the Social Skills subscale patients with ASD and comorbid SUD showed less impairment than those without SUD. The cut-off score 26 yielded 73% correct classifications. The clinical use of the AQ in differentiating between ASD and ADHD is limited.

Autistic traits predict performance on the block design

The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) has been developed to measure the degree to which an adult with normal intelligence has autistic traits. Although use of the AQ has resulted in a number of important findings, few studies have assessed whether scores predict cognitive aspects of ASD. This study assessed whether AQ scores predicted performance on an adapted block design. The test was adapted with a 'whole' and a 'segmented' task. High AQ scorers performed better than low scorers on the 'whole' task in the block design but performed equivalently on the 'segmented' task, as would be predicted in the autism spectrum. These findings add to the evidence showing construct validity for the AQ.

Lexical effects on speech perception in individuals with “autistic” traits

It has been claimed that Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is characterized by a limited ability to process perceptual stimuli in reference to the contextual information of the percept. Such a connection between a nonholistic processing style and behavioral traits associated with ASD is thought to exist also within the neurotypical population albeit in a more subtle way. We examined this hypothesis with respect to auditory speech perception, by testing whether the extent to which phonetic categorization shifts to make the percept a known word (i.e., the ‘Ganong effect’) is weakened as a function of autistic traits in neurotypicals. Fifty-five university students were given the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and a segment identification test using two word-to-nonword Voice Onset Time (VOT) continua (kiss-giss and gift-kift). A significant negative correlation was found between the total AQ score and the identification shift that occurred between the continua. The AQ score did not correlate with scores on separately administered VOT discrimination, auditory lexical decision, or verbal IQ, thus ruling out enhanced auditory sensitivity, slower lexical access or verbal intelligence as explanations of the AQ-related shift in phonetic categorization.

Brain hyper-reactivity to auditory novel targets in children with high-functioning autism

Although communication and social difficulties in autism have received a great deal of research attention, the other key diagnostic feature, extreme repetitive behaviour and unusual narrow interests, has been addressed less often. Also known as 'resistance to change' this may be related to atypical processing of infrequent, novel stimuli. This can be tested at sensory and neural levels. Our aims were to (i) examine auditory novelty detection and its neural basis in children with autism spectrum conditions (ASC) and (ii) test for brain activation patterns that correlate quantitatively with number of autistic traits as a test of the dimensional nature of ASC. The present study employed event-related fMRI during a novel auditory detection paradigm. Participants were twelve 10- to 15-year-old children with ASC and a group of 12 age-, IQ- and sex-matched typical controls. The ASC group responded faster to novel target stimuli. Group differences in brain activity mainly involved the right prefrontal-premotor and the left inferior parietal regions, which were more activated in the ASC group than in controls. In both groups, activation of prefrontal regions during target detection was positively correlated with Autism Spectrum Quotient scores measuring the number of autistic traits. These findings suggest that target detection in autism is associated not only with superior behavioural performance (shorter reaction time) but also with activation of a more widespread network of brain regions. This pattern also shows quantitative variation with number of autistic traits, in a continuum that extends to the normal population. This finding may shed light on the neurophysiological process underlying narrow interests and what clinically is called 'need for sameness'.

Factor Structure, Reliability and Criterion Validity of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): A Study in Dutch Population and Patient Groups

The factor structure of the Dutch translation of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ; a continuous, quantitative measure of autistic traits) was evaluated with confirmatory factor analyses in a large general population and student sample. The criterion validity of the AQ was examined in three matched patient groups (autism spectrum conditions (ASC), social anxiety disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder). A two factor model, consisting of a “Social interaction” factor and “Attention to detail” factor could be identified. The internal consistency and test–retest reliability of the AQ were satisfactory. High total AQ and factor scores were specific to ASC patients. Men scored higher than women and science students higher than non-science students. The Dutch translation of the AQ is a reliable instrument to assess autism spectrum conditions.

Genetic and Environmental Covariation Between Autistic Traits and Behavioral Problems

Our objective was to examine the overlap between autistic traits and other behavioral problems in a general population sample, and explore the extent to which this overlap is due to genetic or environmental factors. Youth Self Report (YSR) data were collected in a general population sample of 424 twin pairs at 18 years of age, and their nontwin siblings. In 197 of these twin families, self-report ratings on the Autism-spectrum Quotient (AQ) were collected. Stepwise backward regression analyses revealed that of all 8 YSR syndrome scales, the Withdrawn Behavior (WB) and Social Problems (SOC) scale were the most important predictors of AQ scores, and together with sex, explained 23% of the variance in AQ scores. Genetic structural equation modeling showed that the overlap between AQ and WB and SOC was mainly due to genetic effects. About half of the genetic variance in AQ scores was specific to the AQ, with the remaining half shared with genetic variance in WB and SOC. Endorsement of autistic traits in a general population sample is associated with social and withdrawn behavioral problems and these problems partly share a common genetic etiology with autistic traits. However, most of the variance in AQ scores remains unexplained by YSR scores, and half of the genetic variance in AQ is unshared with WB and SOC. These results indicate that autistic traits have specific characteristics that are substantially genetically independent from other common but related behavioral domains such as social problems and withdrawn behavior.

Self-Referential Cognition and Empathy in Autism

BackgroundIndividuals with autism spectrum conditions (ASC) have profound impairments in the interpersonal social domain, but it is unclear if individuals with ASC also have impairments in the intrapersonal self-referential domain. We aimed to evaluate across several well validated measures in both domains, whether both self-referential cognition and empathy are impaired in ASC and whether these two domains are related to each other.Methodology/Principal FindingsThirty adults aged 19-45, with Asperger Syndrome or high-functioning autism and 30 age, sex, and IQ matched controls participated in the self-reference effect (SRE) paradigm. In the SRE paradigm, participants judged adjectives in relation to the self, a similar close other, a dissimilar non-close other, or for linguistic content. Recognition memory was later tested. After the SRE paradigm, several other complimentary self-referential cognitive measures were taken. Alexithymia and private self-consciousness were measured via self-report. Self-focused attention was measured on the Self-Focus Sentence Completion task. Empathy was measured with 3 self-report instruments and 1 performance measure of mentalizing (Eyes test). Self-reported autistic traits were also measured with the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Although individuals with ASC showed a significant SRE in memory, this bias was decreased compared to controls. Individuals with ASC also showed reduced memory for the self and a similar close other and also had concurrent impairments on measures of alexithymia, self-focused attention, and on all 4 empathy measures. Individual differences in self-referential cognition predicted mentalizing ability and self-reported autistic traits. More alexithymia and less self memory was predictive of larger mentalizing impairments and AQ scores regardless of diagnosis. In ASC, more self-focused attention is associated with better mentalizing ability and lower AQ scores, while in controls, more self-focused attention is associated with decreased mentalizing ability and higher AQ scores. Increasing private self-consciousness also predicted better mentalizing ability, but only for individuals with ASC.Conclusions/SignificanceWe conclude that individuals with ASC have broad impairments in both self-referential cognition and empathy. These two domains are also intrinsically linked and support predictions made by simulation theory. Our results also highlight a specific dysfunction in ASC within cortical midlines structures of the brain such as the medial prefrontal cortex.

Heritability of Autistic Traits in the General Population

To explore genetic and environmental influences on individual differences in autistic traits in early adulthood and to test if there is assortative mating (nonrandom partner choice) for autistic traits in the general population. Twin family study using structural equation modeling. Population-based twin family sample from the Netherlands. Twins aged 18 years (n = 370) and their siblings (n = 94); parents of twins (128 couples). Main Outcome Measure Self-reported Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) scores, a quantitative measure of autistic traits. Autistic traits were continuously distributed in the population. Twins and siblings did not significantly differ in AQ scores; men obtained significantly higher AQ scores than women (in twin-sibling sample, P<.001; twin-parent sample, P = .02). Individual differences in endorsement on autistic traits show substantial heritability (57%). No significant shared environmental influences were detected. The genes affecting autistic traits appear to be the same across the sexes. The correlation in AQ score between spouses was low and not significant (Pearson r = .05; P = .59). Previous general population twin studies reported high heritability for autistic traits in childhood and early adolescence. This study extends these findings to late adolescence and yields no evidence for sex-specific genetic influences on autistic traits in later stages of development. As autistic traits show substantial variation in the general population, future genetic studies may be facilitated by measuring autistic traits on a continuous scale like the AQ. No evidence for assortative mating for autistic traits was found, suggesting that, in the general population, there is no passive or active partner selection for autistic traits.

自閉症スペクトラム指数（ＡＱ）児童用・日本語版の標準化―高機能自閉症・アスペルガー障害児と定型発達児による検討―

The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) children's version has confirmed reliability and validity in the UK. In the current study, the children's AQ was administered in Japan to investigate whether the UK results are found in a very different culture. Two groups of children from primary and secondary schools were assessed: Group 1 (n = 81) children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD, including Asperger Syndrome and high-functioning autism); Group 2 (n = 372) randomly selected controls, age-matched with Group 1. The children with ASD had a mean AQ score of 31.9 (SD = 6.69), which was significantly higher than controls (mean AQ = 11.7, SD = 5.94). Males scored significantly higher than females in the control group, but not in the ASD group. The pattern of difference between the Japanese clinical group and the control group was remarkably similar to the findings in the UK.

Are autistic traits an independent personality dimension? A study of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and the NEO-PI-R

This study examines the relation between autistic traits and the personality dimensions of the Big Five model in a sample of 320 university students. We administered the Autism-Spectrum Questionnaire (AQ) and the NEO-PI-R. Results showed the AQ correlated with Extraversion and Conscientiousness negatively, and Neuroticism positively. Results of multiple regression analyses suggested the NEO-PI-R did not predict AQ score. Joint factor analyses also suggested autistic traits are independent of the big five personality dimensions. High AQ scorers, who are an analogue model of autism spectrum conditions, showed a profile of high Neuroticism, low Extraversion and low Conscientiousness. Results are discussed in terms of autistic traits representing a sixth factor of personality.

Androgens and autistic traits: A study of individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Testosterone promotes male-typical neural and behavioral development in non-human mammals. There is growing evidence that testosterone exerts similar influences on human development, although the range of behaviors affected is not completely known. This study examined the hypothesis that autistic traits are increased following prenatal exposure to abnormally high levels of testosterone caused by congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Sixty individuals with CAH (34 female, 26 male) and 49 unaffected relatives (24 female, 25 male) completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Females with CAH scored significantly higher than unaffected females on total AQ score, largely due to enhanced scores on subscales measuring social skills and imagination. These results suggest that prenatal exposure to high levels of testosterone influences some autistic traits and that hormonal factors may be involved in vulnerability to autism.

Predicting Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) from the Systemizing Quotient-Revised (SQ-R) and Empathy Quotient (EQ)

Background: Empathizing is a specific component of social cognition. Empathizing is also specifically impaired in autism spectrum condition (ASC). These are two dimensions, measurable using the Empathy Quotient (EQ) and the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). ASC also involves strong systemizing, a dimension measured using the Systemizing Quotient (SQ). The present study examined the relationship between the EQ, AQ and SQ. The EQ and SQ have been used previously to test for sex differences in 5 ‘brain types’ (Types S, E, B and extremes of Type S or E). Finally, people with ASC have been conceptualized as an extreme of the male brain. Method: We revised the SQ to avoid a traditionalist bias, thus producing the SQ-Revised (SQ-R). AQ and EQ were not modified. All 3 were administered online. Sample:Students (723 males, 1038 females) were compared to a group of adults with ASC group (69 males, 56 females). Aims: (1) To report scores from the SQ-R. (2) To test for SQ-R differences among students in the sciences vs. humanities. (3) To test if AQ can be predicted from EQ and SQ-R scores. (4) To test for sex differences on each of these in a typical sample, and for the absence of a sex difference in a sample with ASC if both males and females with ASC are hyper-masculinized. (5) To report percentages of males, females and people with an ASC who show each brain type. Results: AQ score was successfully predicted from EQ and SQ-R scores. In the typical group, males scored significantly higher than females on the AQ and SQ-R, and lower on the EQ. The ASC group scored higher than sex-matched controls on the SQ-R, and showed no sex differences on any of the 3 measures. More than twice as many typical males as females were Type S, and more than twice as many typical females as males were Type E. The majority of adults with ASC were Extreme Type S, compared to 5% of typical males and 0.9% of typical females. The EQ had a weak negative correlation with the SQ-R. Discussion:Empathizing is largely but not completely independent of systemizing. The weak but significant negative correlation may indicate a trade-off between them. ASC involves impaired empathizing alongside intact or superior systemizing. Future work should investigate the biological basis of these dimensions, and the small trade-off between them.

The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) in Japan: A Cross-Cultural Comparison

The AQ (Autism-Spectrum Quotient) is a self-administered instrument for measuring the degree to which an adult with normal intelligence has the traits associated with the autistic spectrum. The AQ was administered in Japan to test whether the UK results would generalize to a very different culture. Three groups of subjects, adults with AS or HFA (n = 57), adult controls (n = 194), and University students (n = 1050) were assessed. The adults with AS/HFA had a mean AQ score which was significantly higher than both the controls and the University students. Among the controls, males scored significantly higher than females. The similarity of results in both the general population and the clinical group across the two cultures was remarkable.

Personality correlates of the broader autism phenotype as assessed by the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ)

The main objective of this study was to characterise the five-factor personality model profile of the broader autism phenotype as assessed by the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Comparison data were also obtained for a brief Asperger syndrome screening measure. The psychometric properties and factor structure of the AQ were also assessed and group differences in AQ scores examined. The AQ and personality scale were completed by 201 undergraduates. A second group of 136 adults completed the personality scale and the Asperger screening measure. Examination of correlations showed that high scores on both `autism' measures were associated with high neuroticism and low extraversion and agreeableness. Three of the five proposed sub-scales of the AQ emerged from the factor analysis. The AQ and sub-scales had satisfactory or near-satisfactory reliabilities. Group differences were generally as expected: Males had higher AQ scores than females, `hard' science students had higher scores than other students and students with parent(s) in a scientific occupation had higher scores.