Australian Meat Industry Research Articles

Pathways toward Climate-Neutral Red Meat Production

Ruminant livestock industries can support the climate stabilization ambitions of the Paris Agreement through interventions that reduce GHG emissions (predominantly biogenic methane) and sequester carbon in landscapes. This study explored pathways for the Australian red meat industry (grazing, feedlot finishing, and domestic processing) to become climate neutral, whereby the radiative forcing (RF) footprint is plateaued and there is no additional forcing contribution. Emissions timeseries (CO2, N2O, CH4) were compiled for 1990 to 2020 and projected to 2030 under a business-as-usual scenario (including an 18% increase in sheep and 13% increase in beef cattle) and with a range of production system and vegetation management interventions. The RF footprint peaked in 2018 at 7.13 mW/m2 and decreased to 7.07 mW/m2 in 2020. With the future expansion of the herd/flock and under business-as-usual conditions, the RF footprint is projected to increase by 2.8% by 2030. However, with a combination of interventions, production has the potential to increase with a decreasing RF footprint, a condition that can be described as climate neutral. The Australian red meat industry has made an historical contribution to global RF increase. However, with ongoing RF management, it is possible to increase food production within climate-neutral limits.

Dynamic correction of dual−energy x-ray absorptiometry images improves chain speed prediction of lamb composition in abattoirs

A prototype, on-line Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometer (DXA) has shown high precision of the prediction of carcass composition for the purpose of improved sheep meat grading in the Australian lamb supply chain, albeit with small inaccuracies over time. These inaccuracies were present across hours, and more significantly across days, which were unacceptable for any accreditation of this device as an objective carcass measurement tool in Australia. This inaccuracy demanded the creation of a novel image−processing algorithm for the prototype DXA. This DXA was tested for repeatability of predictions of lamb carcass composition over minutes, hours, and days, using two developed image processing algorithms. There was high immediate repeatability for both algorithms when predicting lean muscle % in 40 lamb carcasses, with a maximum CV of 0.65% over five repeated scans. There was a decrease in the CV of the prediction of lean muscle % of 30 lambs scanned three times over a 48-h period from 5.93 to 1.19% when the superior algorithm was used. The inaccuracies of lean muscle % predictions were associated with increases in the unattenuated space pixel values in DXA images. Improvements of the current algorithm are required to demonstrate repeatability over time for the purpose of accreditation within the Australian sheep meat industry, and for possible expansion of this technology into international supply chains.

Dominant Salmonella Serovars in Australian Broiler Breeder Flocks and Hatcheries: a Longitudinal Study.

A longitudinal study was conducted to determine the dominance and prevalence of Salmonella enterica subsp in Australian broiler breeder flocks and hatcheries. Twenty-two flocks (n = 3339 samples) were sampled over 6 time points beginning at placement until week 40. Hatcheries (n = 274 samples) were sampled following removal of chicks hatched from eggs originating from the 22 donor parent flocks. The percent of positive flocks (36%) and frequency of positive samples (15.6%) were highest during rearing at week 7. The frequency of positive samples decreased over the 40 weeks; however, the number of positive flocks remained relatively consistent. Geographical location had a greater influence on Salmonella detection frequency than company sample origin, despite differing management and vaccination protocols within and between companies. Twelve serovars were detected in total. The predominant serovars during rearing were Salmonella Mbandaka (32%), S. Saintpaul (27%), and S. Liverpool (18%). The predominant serovars detected during production were S. Cubana (27%), S. Saintpaul (24%), and S. Havana (13%). Salmonella Typhimurium, S. Ohio, and S. Hessarek were detected in the hatcheries. Of the serovars detected, only S. Typhimurium and S. Ohio were found in both broiler breeder flocks and hatcheries. However, detection did not correspond to the status of the flock eggs feeding into the hatchery. This study provides an up-to-date capture of the current Salmonella serovars circulating in the broiler breeder industry. Continued surveillance within the Australian Chicken Meat industry is imperative to mitigate and reduce the risk of salmonellosis in the community related to chicken meat. IMPORTANCE This study identified prevalent and dominant Salmonella enterica subsp in Australian Broiler Breeder flocks, as well as in hatcheries post chick hatch and removal, from eggs originating from these donor parent flocks. The captured Salmonella data was further compared to the most common Salmonella serovars isolated from broilers, as well as human salmonellosis notification data, which is useful for consideration of the circulating serovars within the chicken meat industry and their significance in public health. As there are multiple entry points for Salmonella during the entire chicken meat production chain that can lead to carcass contamination, it is important to distinguish serovars present between the different stages of vertical integration to implement and enable Salmonella control strategies.

Digital tool for driving circular economy outcomes in the Australian red meat industry

This study presents the development of a novel digital tool aimed at facilitating the preliminary sizing and economical evaluation of integrated resource management facilities for wastewater treatment in red meat processing plants. The tool is designed to transform conventional wastewater treatment facilities in these plants into resource recovery plants, with a strong emphasis on enhancing environmental compliance and reducing the overall carbon footprint. Key objectives include the reduction of nutrient emissions, wastewater recycling, waste minimisation, and biogas energy production. The framework for developing this digital tool incorporates considerations of scale, the urgency of wastewater issues outlined by the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) for Australian red meat processors, and adaptability for plants of varying sizes. By providing decision support for wastewater treatment and waste management, this model aims to assist the red meat processing industry in aligning with net-zero goals through resource recovery and the adoption of a circular economy.

Supply Chain Automation in the Australian Red Meat Industry

Supply Chain Automation in the Australian Red Meat Industry

Unlocking the monetary value: investigating the importance of quality information in Australian red meat chains

Context This study assesses the monetary value of product quality information, specifically feedback from slaughter and production methods, within the Australian beef and sheep meat supply chains. Aims The primary objective was to investigate the value assigned by supply chain actors to product quality information, measured as willingness to pay for receiving it or willingness to accept payment for providing it. The study also aimed to explore how the value of this information varies based on information quality and quantity. Methods A contingent valuation approach was employed, utilising survey data from 104 producers. Logit models were used to identify the factors influencing meat producers’ willingness to accept payment and willingness to pay. Key results Over one-third of cattle and sheep producers expressed interest in receiving feedback from slaughter information and providing production methods information. Production methods information had the highest mean value at the premium information quality and quantity level, with values of AU$20.49/head in the beef industry and AU$10.13/head in the sheep industry. Conversely, feedback from slaughter information had the lowest mean value at the low information quality and quantity level, with values of AU$0.83/carcass in beef and AU$0.14/carcass in sheep. Farmers’ experience and education level significantly influenced their willingness to accept payment and willingness to pay for product quality information. Conclusions A significant proportion of producers within the Australian beef and sheep meat supply chains express a desire to provide or pay for product quality information. The value assigned to this information demonstrates a positive relationship with higher information quality and quantity. However, variations in expressed value of different information types, and the influence of farmer and farm characteristics, suggest the presence of chain failures that disrupt information valuation. Implications These findings have important implications for improving the performance of the red meat supply chains. Understanding the factors that influence the valuation of product quality information allows stakeholders to develop targeted strategies to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of information exchange. This may involve addressing chain failures, and implementing measures to ensure consistent and accurate valuation of information. Ultimately, these improvements can contribute to enhanced decision-making processes and overall supply chain performance in the Australian beef and sheep meat industry.

Differences in public and producer attitudes toward animal welfare in the red meat industries.

Societal concerns dictate the need for animal welfare standards and legislation. The public and livestock producers often differ on their views of livestock welfare, and failure to meet public expectations may threaten the “social license to operate” increasing the cost of production and hampering the success of the industry. This study examined public and producer attitudes toward common practices and animal welfare issues in the Australian red meat industry, knowledge of these practices, and public and producer trust in people working the red meat industry using an Australia-wide survey of both the general public (n = 501) and red meat producers (n = 200). Public participants were recruited using a random digit dialing telephone survey (Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing) while the red meat producers were randomly selected within a curated database of Australian red meat producers. After controlling for gender and age, there were marked differences (p < 0.01) between public and producer respondents in 20 of the 27 attitude, trust and knowledge variables studied. Producers reported more positive beliefs in the conditions provided for sheep and beef cattle during sea and land transport, the husbandry practices used in the red meat industry, and red meat attributes regarding human health, environmental impact, animal use and animal welfare. Both public and producers reported similar levels of trust in conventional and commercial media and had similar beliefs about animal rights, prevention of animal cruelty and balancing the welfare of people and animals. The results indicate a polarization between the public and livestock producers in their attitudes toward animal welfare, knowledge of husbandry practices and trust in livestock people.

Maternal lysine, methionine and choline supplementation in twin-bearing Merino ewes during mid-to-late gestation does not alter pregnancy outcomes or progeny growth and survival

High twin lamb mortality in Merino sheep is a major cost for the Australian wool and sheep meat industry. Most lambs die within three days of birth due to low birthweight and/or complications arising during parturition. Maternal arginine supplementation can potentially increase birthweight by improving utero-placental haemodynamics; but availability and cost of rumen-protected arginine are barriers. Therefore, we sought to increase circulating concentrations of arginine, lamb birthweight and survival by supplementing twin-bearing Merino ewes with lysine, methionine and choline from day 80 of gestation (dG 80) to parturition. Each day, ewes were individually fed a supplement (barley, pea, pollard and molasses) with addition of either 14 g lysine, 7 g methionine and 7 g choline (amino acid; AA; n = 48); or no amino acids (control; CTL; n = 48). Supplementation did not alter circulating amino acid profiles in ewes at dG 120. Parturition difficulty of ewes and meconium staining of lambs did not differ between AA and CTL groups. Rectal temperatures during the first 24 h of life and serum IgG concentrations (indicative of colostrum intake) at 24 h after birth were similar in lambs born to AA and CTL ewes. AA supplementation did not alter lamb weights from birth to weaning (~three months of age), or lamb survival to weaning (CTL: 75%; AA: 84.8%, P > 0.05). The lack of response to maternal supplementation with this combination of rumen-protected lysine, methionine and choline suggests that alternate strategies are needed to increase maternal arginine abundance and twin lamb survival.

Semi-quantitative food safety risk profile of the Australian red meat industry

In 2017–18, the Australian red meat (beef, sheep and goat species) industry generated more than $AUD 13 billion in export trade alone and is therefore of substantial importance to the Australian GDP. With both relatively high amounts of domestic red meat consumption and dependence on international markets, food safety risk is constantly reassessed so as to maintain a resilient industry sector. The current study aimed to conduct a food safety risk rating for the Australian red meat industry. In 2002, a food safety risk profile was developed for the Australian red meat industry. It included raw and processed meat products of cattle, sheep and goats and considered microbiological, chemical and physical hazards. The current risk rating was undertaken during 2017 and 2018. The first step was to conduct a hazard characterization, which involved a review of literature and data on foodborne outbreaks, pathogen surveillance and product recalls, and an expert elicitation process with 15 Australian food safety experts. This process identified the Hazard:Product:Process combinations to be considered and the likelihood of contamination at the point of consumption. These likelihood ratings were then combined with hazard severity ratings to qualitatively estimate the relative risk posed by each combination. Combinations with a moderate-to-high risk were included in the semi-quantitative risk rating using Risk Ranger v2, a tool that allows an estimation of the public health risk of hazard: product combinations and a ranking of this risk. The Risk Ranger tool provides a risk ranking (RR), ranging from 0 (no risk) to 100 (every member of the population eats a meal that contains a lethal dose of the hazard every day). STEC E. coli O157 (RR 35-39) and Salmonella spp. (RR 33-37) in undercooked hamburgers and Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat products (RR 35-38) were combinations which had the highest (moderate) risk for the general and susceptible populations. In addition, Toxoplasma gondii in undercooked lamb was identified as posing a high risk among pregnant women (RR 49). The study provides an updated food safety risk profile for the Australian red meat industry which, considering the available information, suggests red meat products do not pose a high food safety risk. The methodology developed in this study provides an easy to implement approach to profile and prioritise food safety risk and relies on data that can generated in most situations.

Chemical lean determination of boneless beef and lamb using a halogen moisture analyser

Context Chemical lean (CL) is an important metric used by the Australian meat industry to describe fat content of meat product. It is a minimum meat specification included in contracts between Australian vendors of bulk packed boneless manufacturing meat and overseas or domestic buyers and can be regarded as the complement of chemically determined fat in meat (% fat, CL = 100-% fat). The microwave moisture method is commonly used for measuring CL content of meat in Australian abattoirs, relying on a relationship between CL and moisture content of boneless meat. It is regarded as a quick and easy method to use. More recently, newer methods for moisture analysis have become available which may also be suitable for CL determination, including commercial halogen moisture analysers (HMAs). HMAs use a halogen lamp as a source of infrared radiation that is absorbed by a sample, which then results in moisture loss. Aims This study aimed to compare the use of HMAs for CL determination of beef and lamb to that obtained from Soxhlet extraction technique, which is the AOAC Final Action Method for determining fat in meat and accepted as the reference method for fat determination. Additionally, the study sought to validate the use of HMAs as a method for CL determination in the Australian meat industry. Methods HMAs were used to determine the moisture content of six beef and one lamb samples, which were used to calculate the CL content. The fat content of the samples was also determined using Soxhlet fat extraction. Passing-Bablok regression and Bland-Altman plot analysis were used to identify any differences and bias between the methods, respectively. Key results Passing-Bablok regression showed that there was no difference between methods, while Bland-Altman plot analysis indicated no bias was evident between the methods. While some differences were apparent between approaches either due to using moisture as a proxy for fat/CL compared with continual solvent extraction or sample heterogeneity, sufficient agreement existed between results to lie within an acceptance criterion of 1.2 CL units. Conclusion The use of HMAs was substantiated as a method for CL determination in the Australian meat industry and has been accredited by AUS-MEAT Ltd as a method for boneless beef and lamb. Implications HMAs can be used in the Australian meat industry for CL determination and represent a relatively simpler and easier approach for this important industry metric.

An industry survey on litter management and re-use practices of Australian meat chicken growers

Litter management is important when rearing meat chickens because litter conditions can affect production as well as chicken health and wellbeing. An industry survey was conducted to gather information from Australian meat chicken growers and integrators about their litter management practices, providing an opportunity to share their knowledge, experiences and perceptions about litter re-use and litter turning. This information was essential for researchers investigating litter management practices because it provided a better understanding about litter preparation and shed configuration to ensure that representative and timely data could be collected. Eighty-four survey responses were received from all major growing regions across Australia. The survey closely reflected the proportions of conventional and free-range production systems of Australian chicken meat industry, with approximately 21% of survey responses representing free range and 80% representing conventional barn housing. Concerning litter management practices, the survey showed that litter re-use is limited (32% of responses), but litter turning is a widespread practice (89% of responses). Litter turning is used to reduce the occurrence of caked litter and to keep litter ‘working’. Maintaining ‘dry and friable’ litter has been shown to reduce the risk of health issues and allows chickens to display behaviours, such as dustbathing, which are believed to be associated with improved welfare. Comments from the survey indicated that litter turning alone does not achieve dry and friable litter, and that proactive ventilation, heater and drinker management are essential. Growers also explained that litter turning is not without its challenges, and can potentially contribute to spikes of dust, ammonia and/or odour. They also expressed concerns relating to operating machinery in poultry houses, particularly when there is high liveweight density. When growers were asked about litter re-use, several reported that it has benefits in reducing production costs and improving moisture holding capacity, but concerns were also expressed about risks relating to ammonia, litter beetle control and disease transmission. Researchers will be able to use these survey results to gain an insight into practices, perceptions, constraints, and challenges relating to the Australian chicken meat industry and ensure that future research relating to litter management reflects local conditions and practices.

An exploratory study to investigate animal health and reproductive wastage among Australian meat goat producers.

The Australian goat meat industry has grown significantly in the last decade, with the value of exports nearly tripling. However, because carcase weight has remained constant over this time, the drivers of industry growth are price and supply. Animal health and reproduction are key factors contributing to supply and productivity, yet limitations to production management are poorly understood, hampering advice for effective intervention. This exploratory study aims to provide insights into the animal health and reproductive management practices and perceptions among meat goat producers in Australia. To achieve this aim, 20 producers, located in New South Wales, Queensland, Western Australia and Victoria, operating under different production systems were interviewed. The results of this study suggest that animal health management could be improved and that producers perceive a lack of relevant and species-specific information available to help them make informed decisions. Reproductive management and records varied greatly across producers interviewed. Kid loss was identified as an issue, with a 28% estimated average (6%-47% range) of losses from kidding until weaning. Producers identified predation, doe nutrition and mismothering as the biggest contributors to kid loss, with the majority of losses occurring within a week of birth. All producers believed management could minimise kid loss. This study highlights the importance of improving reproductive rates among goat enterprises and provides new information on the current practices within the Australian meat goat industry. This may assist the development of appropriate strategies for improving health and reproductive management and delivery of advice to producers.

Contemporary chemical lean determination used in the Australian meat processing industry: A method comparison

Chemical Lean (CL) is defined as the amount of lean red meat compared to the amount of fat in a meat product. CL determination is a mandatory, AUS-MEAT Ltd. prescribed requirement for any bulk packed meat product destined for export. Fifteen methods are approved by AUS-MEAT Ltd., for use in Australian industry. Engagement with Australian meat processors indicated that a range of methods were used for CL measurements in industry, ranging from wet chemical to instrumental based techniques. Meat (consisting of beef, lamb and pork) was used in a method comparison which included Soxhlet fat extraction and microwave moisture analysis, along with instrumental techniques; near infrared reflectance and transmittance, nuclear magnetic resonance and X-Ray. The methods were compared using Passing-Bablok regression, Bland-Altman plot analysis, and robust z-scores, indicating that overall showed that each method performed satisfactorily, suitable for CL determination in the Australian meat industry.

Product quality information in supply chains: a performance-linked conceptual framework applied to the Australian red meat industry

PurposeThis paper aims to address the association between the quality and quantity of information in supply chains and the costs and benefits of generating, using and sharing it.Design/methodology/approachThe authors’ conceptual framework draws on multiple disciplines and theories of the value and use of product information. Controllable aspects of information, its quality and quantity, are the focus of the study as drivers of firm and chain performance. Structural equation models of constructs at two stages of the Australian red meat supply chain are employed, using data from a survey of 81 sheep and cattle breeders and commercial producers.FindingsInformation quality influences performance more for some product attributes than others and is more influential than is information quantity. Information sharing for many attributes generates benefits only at high cost. Investment in measurement and transmission technologies is supported for intrinsic and extrinsic measures of quality. Differences in respondents' evaluation of information quality are interpreted as evidence of persistent chain failure.Originality/valueTo the authors' knowledge, this is the first attempt at quantifying and comparing the benefits and costs of information sharing across multiple stages of a supply chain and the first to assess quantitatively the role played by information quality and quantity in generating costs and benefits.

Suitability of litter amendments for the Australian chicken meat industry

The Australian chicken meat indutstry is rapidly expanding due to the increasing consumption of chicken meat. As a result, the industry has growing issues of sourcing new bedding materials and disposing of spent litter, which can be attributed, in part, to a lack of widespread litter re-use for rearing chickens. According to insights and perspectives recently gathered from industry stakeholders, it is believed that re-using litter will become more common in the future, so as to reduce production costs and ease pressures on both the supply of new bedding materials and disposal of spent litter. However, there are potential risks that need to be addressed if litter re-use increases, particularly with regard to the production and mitigation of ammonia, which can negatively affect chicken health if not managed correctly. The present review discusses the potential benefits reported for different types of litter amendments, which have the primary goal of reducing ammonia volatilisation, but may also contribute to improvements in bird performance, welfare, pathogen loads, fertiliser value of spent litter, and reduced costs associated with purchasing new bedding materials. Acidifiers have been shown to be the most effective of all amendment types, with sodium bisulfate or alum being among the most commonly tested products mentioned in research literature. Litter amendments are currently rarely used in Australia, but it is hoped that the information provided in the present review, based mostly on overseas usage and research, will help inform future decision-making on the use of these products in Australian poultry production systems.

A Spira Inspired Approach to Animal Protection Advocacy for Rabbits in the Australian Meat Industry

A Spira Inspired Approach to Animal Protection Advocacy for Rabbits in the Australian Meat Industry

Effects of Enhancement with Phosphate or Sodium Bicarbonate on the Eating Quality of Five Beef Muscles Prepared as Fajita Meat

ObjectivesThe Australian meat industry exports over 70% of its beef, with a large portion going to the US. Due to the popularity of fajita meat in the US, there is an opportunity to export value-added fajita cuts from Australia to the United States. A consumer study was conducted to measure sensory differences between five muscles subjected to two different enhancement solutions.Materials and MethodsFive muscles were collected from cattle at a commercial abattoir in Rockhampton, Australia. The muscles included were top round cap/gracilis (n = 81), inside skirt/transversus abdominis (n = 81), outside skirt/diaphragm (n = 95), flank/rectus abdominis (n = 81), and sirloin flap/obliquus externus abdominis (n = 81). The muscles were vacuum packaged and shipped refrigerated to Texas Tech University for processing. All muscles were cut into equal halves, and then assigned to no enhancement (CON), phosphate enhancement (PHOS), sodium bicarbonate (SBC) enhancement. Muscles were vacuum tumbled to 115% of green weight with their respective solution. Muscles were cooked and sliced into 1.3-cm strips, 5-cm long, and kept warm until serving. The samples were cooked to a medium degree of doneness (71°C) and evaluated for juiciness, flavor liking, and overall liking on 100-mm line scales. Data were analyzed using PROC GLIMMIX of SAS using MSA carcass grade, muscle, enhancement, and their interactions as fixed effects (α = 0.05).ResultsNo interactions were detected for any eating quality traits (P &gt; 0.05). MSA grade only influenced tenderness (P = 0.04), where Classic (4*) had greater (P &lt; 0.05) tenderness scores than Premium (5*) and ungraded cuts but did not differ (P &gt; 0.05) from Selected (3*). Muscle influenced all palatability traits (P &lt; 0.0001). The sirloin flap (obliquus abdominis internus) steaks had the highest tenderness score (73.7), juiciness score (66.7), flavor score (67.5) and overall liking score (68.6), differentiating itself from the other 4 cuts (P &lt; 0.0001). The top round cap/gracilis had the lowest tenderness scores (49.2), juiciness score (44.7) and overall liking score (51.2) (P &lt; 0.01). Also, enhancement method influenced tenderness and juiciness (P &lt; 0.0001). Between the phosphate enhancement, sodium bicarbonate enhancement and non-enhanced samples, the sodium bicarbonate samples were rated the highest for tenderness 64.1) (P &lt; 0.0001). Moreover, clean enhanced fajita samples rated highest for overall liking (64.0), with phosphate being similar (63.2). The control samples were ranked the lowest in tenderness (46.7), juiciness (42.7), flavor (44.2) and overall liking (43.9).ConclusionThe sirloin flap/obliquus externus abdominis samples were rated highest in all palatability scores, while the top round cap/gracilis had the lowest tenderness, juiciness and overall liking scores. Between the 3 enhancement treatments, the sodium bicarbonate enhancement was significantly the highest rated on tenderness and juiciness. The sirloin flap/obliquus externus abdominis samples that are enhanced with the sodium bicarbonate treatment could maximize the highest palatability scores from consumers. The innovation muscle, the top round cap/gracilis, was rated the lowest of the five muscles in every palatability category but could improve scores through a sodium bicarbonate enhancement.

Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. isolated from Australian meat chickens remain susceptible to critically important antimicrobial agents.

The World Health Organisation has defined “highest priority critically important antimicrobials” (CIAs) as those requiring the greatest control during food production. Evidence demonstrating that restricted antimicrobial usage prevents the emergence of resistance to CIA’s amongst pathogenic and commensal organisms on a production system-wide scale would strengthen international efforts to control antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Therefore, in a designed survey of all major chicken-meat producers in Australia, we investigated the phenotypic AMR of E. coli (n = 206) and Salmonella (n = 53) from caecal samples of chickens at slaughter (n = 200). A large proportion of E. coli isolates (63.1%) were susceptible to all tested antimicrobials. With regards to CIA resistance, only two E.coli isolates demonstrated resistance to fluoroquinolones, attributed to mutations in the quinolone resistance-determining regions of gyrA. Antimicrobial resistance was observed for trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (8.7%), streptomycin (9.7%), ampicillin (14.1%), tetracycline (19.4%) and cefoxitin (0.5%). All Salmonella isolates were susceptible to ceftiofur, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, colistin, florfenicol, gentamicin and tetracycline. A low frequency of Salmonella isolates exhibited resistance to streptomycin (1.9%), ampicillin (3.8%), and cefoxitin (11.3%). AMR was only observed among Salmonella Sofia serovars. None of the Salmonella isolates exhibited a multi-class-resistant phenotype. Whole genome sequencing did not identify any known resistance mechanisms for the Salmonella isolates demonstrating resistance to cefoxitin. The results provide strong evidence that resistance to highest priority CIA’s is absent in commensal E. coli and Salmonella isolated from Australian meat chickens, and demonstrates low levels of resistance to compounds with less critical ratings such as cefoxitin, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, and tetracycline. Apart from regulated exclusion of CIAs from most aspects of livestock production, vaccination against key bacterial pathogens and stringent biosecurity are likely to have contributed to the favorable AMR status of the Australian chicken meat industry. Nevertheless, industry and government need to proactively monitor AMR and antimicrobial stewardship practices to ensure the long-term protection of both animal and human health.

Antimicrobial stewardship in the Australian chicken meat industry.

Antimicrobial stewardship in the Australian chicken meat industry.

Pathways to carbon-neutrality for the Australian red meat sector

The Australian red meat industry is an important contributor to the national economy and international markets. A focus on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from this sector presents an important opportunity for the sustainability of the industry and to enable Australia to achieve its commitments set under the Paris climate agreement. Here we show that through changes in land management and application of technologies to reduce enteric methane emissions from grazing livestock it is possible for the Australian red meat industry to substantially reduce GHG emissions, and even become carbon neutral. We calculated baseline (2005) and current (2015) GHG emissions for the red meat sector, then examined the mitigation potential and costs of potential pathways to reduce and offset emissions. Emissions from the Australian red meat industry have decreased from 124.1 Mt CO2e in 2005 to 68.6 Mt CO2e in 2015, primarily through reductions in land clearing. Achieving carbon neutrality is possible with continued improvements in vegetation management combined with methods to reduce livestock emissions, sequester carbon, and maintain animal numbers. While possible, this ambitious target will require timely and substantial investment and policy support from private and government bodies.