Australian Environment Protection Research Articles

Has a dedicated biodiversity offsets policy improved the environmental and social compensation outcomes of development in Australia?

AbstractBiodiversity offsets are used worldwide to provide environmental compensation for the impacts of development and to meet the goals of sustainable development. Australia has embraced the use of offsets and its offset methodologies have been used as models by other jurisdictions. However, the maturity of offset requirements in Australia is unknown. To understand this, development referrals submitted under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Commonwealth) between October 2011 and September 2017 were reviewed to determine if offset requirements in Australia were improving in complexity, transparency and/or environmental outcomes (termed maturity) over time. Despite the implementation of dedicated policy in Australia in 2012, our analysis showed that offset requirements were not on a trajectory towards improvement (maturity) over the 6-year period examined. There was no evidence to suggest the type of offsets required and compensation for impacts to specific species and habitats increased in complexity over time. The level of detail included for offset requirements, mandatory commencement dates and requirements for ecological outcomes similarly did not increase over time. Consequently, dedicated legislation for offsets is recommended to remedy these omissions and enable effective functionality for biodiversity offsets through the protection of the environment and conservation of biodiversity, ecosystem function and ecosystem services.

Allosuckling in southern right whale calves

Allosuckling, the suckling of milk from a non-biological mother, occurs in some species of mammals. Allosuckling has not been quantified in baleen whale calves; therefore, we examine allosuckling in southern right whales (SRWs; Eubalaena australis) off Australia. SRWs are listed as Endangered under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act as their numbers remain below the estimated historical abundance. On a small aggregation area, where there were three mother–calf pairs present, we aimed to quantify the proportion of time that calves allosuckled relative to the time spent filial suckling. To achieve this, we conducted unmanned aerial vehicle focal follows on mother–calf pairs and video recorded all interactions among pairs (n = 22 interactions, 3 h total observation time). During interactions, allosuckling occurred in seven interactions, and filial nursing occurred in 11 interactions. One of the calves performed allosuckling, and it was the largest calf with the largest mother. The calf allosuckled from both of the non-biological mothers present. The average proportion of time allosuckling per interaction was 4% (95% CI = ± 0.01, range = 0–0.25), whilst filial nursing for the same calf was 8% (95% CI = ± 0.02, range = 0–0.37). It is important to understand the frequency of allosuckling, and to quantify the energetic benefits for allosuckling calves and the energetic cost incurred by targeted non-biological mothers. This is particularly pertinent for capital breeders who do not replenish lost energy reserves until they migrate to their feeding grounds.

Turtles in trouble. Conservation ecology and priorities for Australian freshwater turtles

AbstractThe Australian freshwater turtle fauna is dominated by species in the family Chelidae. The extant fauna comprises a series of distinct lineages, each of considerable antiquity, relicts of a more extensive and perhaps diverse fauna that existed when wetter climes prevailed. Several phylogenetically distinctive species are restricted to single, often small, drainage basins, which presents challenges for their conservation. Specific threats include water resource development, which alters the magnitude, frequency, and timing of flows and converts lentic to lotic habitat via dams and weirs, fragmentation of habitat, sedimentation, nutrification, and a reduction in the frequency and extent of floodplain flooding. Drainage of wetlands and altered land use are of particular concern for some species that are now very restricted in range and critically endangered. The introduced European red fox is a devastatingly efficient predator of turtle nests and can have a major impact on recruitment. In the north, species such as the northern snake‐necked turtle are heavily depredated by feral pigs. Other invasive animals and aquatic weeds dramatically alter freshwater habitats, with consequential impacts on freshwater turtles. Novel pathogens such as viruses have brought at least one species to the brink of extinction. Species that routinely migrate across land are impacted by structural simplification of habitat, reduction in availability of terrestrial refugia, fencing (including conservation fencing), and in some areas, by high levels of road mortality. We report on the listing process and challenges for listing freshwater turtles under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, summarize the state of knowledge relevant to listing decisions, identify the key threatening processes impacting turtles, and identify key knowledge gaps that impede the setting of priorities. We also focus on how to best incorporate First Nations Knowledge into decisions on listing and discuss opportunities to engage Indigenous communities in on‐ground work to achieve conservation outcomes.

Formulaic Unpublished Names: The need for a TDWG standard and for the inclusion of such names in apps such as iNaturalist

Names are essential for communication. In biodiversity we have a nomenclature system that has stood the test of time (around 270 years) and, despite some shortcomings, it works. However, the world has changed. Extinction rates have increased rapidly in recent times and are rising at ever increasing rates due to climate change and human neglect. As a result, we need to do everything we can to protect the species that remain and, to do that, we need to be able to communicate about those species. The publishing process is slow, and there is a dearth of taxonomists, so the formal publication for many of these species, especially in the tropics and the New World, cannot keep up with the ever-increasing known unpublished species. It is estimated (Chapman 2009) that only about 16% of the world’s species have been described. In plants that figure is around 65% described, with 35% still undescribed. Many of these are known, and many are threatened, but unless we give them names, we cannot adequately communicate about them, exchange data on them, or add them into conservation legislation. This includes being able to identify photos, etc. in citizen science apps such as iNaturalist, which can be important in determining ranges, identifying new taxa, and for taxonomists and other researchers. In the 1980s, Australia developed a formulaic naming system for undescribed plant species (Chapman 2005). The formulaic name follows the format: "<Genus> sp. <colloquial name, location or description> (<Voucher>)" e.g., "Prostanthera sp. Somersbey (B.J.Conn 4024)". This was universally adopted in Australia in the 1990s, and allowed, from 1999, the inclusion of these undescribed taxa in the legislated National and State threatened species lists. As of May 2022, there were 41 such taxa listed in the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). Such formulaic names can be synonymised as new names are formally described. A more detailed discussion of the formulaic method was given on pages 20-21 in Chapman (2005). Some have said that this is a trivial issue, but it is not trivial, and we will give evidence of this by looking at just one small part of the world – Western Australia – where there are currently 987 currently accepted undescribed taxa out of an estimated flora of about 13,000 that use this formulaic naming system (https://florabase.dpaw.wa.gov.au/). That is around 7.5% of all plant species in the state. Of these 987 taxa, over 50% are listed as Conservation Priority taxa (calculated from the florabase reference). This is not just an Australian problem, or just a plant problem, and thus we need such a system formalised into a TDWG standard. This would allow for consistency across the globe and across life kingdoms and allow for the transfer of data through data aggregators such as the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). We also need citizen science apps such as iNaturalist to allow for the inclusion of such names in their taxonomies, otherwise we lose a lot of important information on some of the most valuable and threatened taxa in the world. While looking at the benefits, we must also look at some of the drawbacks e.g., physical piracy of rare taxa, and taxonomic piracy. It has been suggested that in some taxonomic groups, tying a formula name to a voucher, and especially where there is a link to a photo on iNaturalist, could encourage taxon pirates to describe and publish the taxa as new taxa in self-published journals without having examined any material. These issues need to be discussed, but we believe they are not reasons to deny support of the concept of formulaic names, even if different formats are needed for different taxonomic groups.

Compelled by the Court to Act on Climate Change: Bushfire Survivors for Climate Action Incorporated v Environment Protection Authority [2021] NSWLEC 92

Abstract This analysis considers Bushfire Survivors for Climate Action Incorporated v Environment Protection Authority [2021] NSWLEC 92, in which an Australian environment protection authority was issued a mandamus to compel it to perform a public duty to develop instruments to ensure the protection of the environment from climate change. Brought by a group of climate activists affected by bushfire, it is the first successful action-forcing case of its kind in Australia. Cases that seek to fill the gaps in domestic governance regimes via the courts raise the issue of the role of the courts in advancing climate policy. They also demonstrate the importance of the rule of law, and the right of citizens to enforce the law against the government where it has lagged. In this article, I provide an overview of the case in light of these aspects, and additionally consider the role that climate science played in the courtroom.

Trends in gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua) breeding population size at Macquarie Island

Gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua) have a widespread breeding distribution across the sub-Antarctic and Antarctic. Population trends vary across their range, with increases recorded in the Antarctic and Atlantic sectors of the Southern Ocean, while other sub-Antarctic populations are decreasing. Macquarie Island is the only breeding site for gentoo penguins in the Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean and one of just two breeding sites within Australian territories. Eight island-wide censuses were undertaken between 1984 and 2017 to estimate the number of breeding pairs, with a follow-up chick census conducted in four years to calculate breeding success. The most recent census in 2017 recorded the fewest breeding pairs since counts began, with 2527 ± 66 gentoo pairs island wide. However, breeding success was the highest recorded at 0.99 chicks per nest. Trends in sub-populations around the island differed. However, island-wide breeding pairs have decreased by − 1.8 ± 0.4% per annum over the past 34 years, particularly driven by breeding colonies in the east-coast section of the island. This overall negative trend differs from the currently stable global trend, but mirrors what is happening in some other parts of the species’ sub-Antarctic range. We suggest based on a 50% decrease in breeding pairs over the species’ last three generations, and a lack of recent data from Heard Island, Australia’s other gentoo penguin breeding site, the species be considered for listing under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.

A comparison of an environmental impact assessment (EIA) vertebrate fauna survey with a post-approval fauna salvage program: consequences of not adhering to EIA survey guidelines, a Western Australian example

The Western Australian Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) has issued written guidance on its expectations for terrestrial vertebrate fauna surveys to support environmental impact assessments (EIA). We report on one of the few circumstances where a direct comparison of the results from an EIA vertebrate fauna survey, that did not, in our opinion, appear to conform with the EPA’s guidance statement expectations but was seemingly accepted by the EPA, and a comprehensive terrestrial vertebrate fauna salvage program were undertaken at the same site. This has enabled us to comment on the consequences of not undertaking a survey that complies with the EPA’s expectations. Excluding incursions by non-local species, bats and avian fauna, ~33% of terrestrial vertebrate fauna species recorded during the fauna salvage program were not reported as being present in the EIA survey. The relative abundance of various species differed appreciably between the fauna salvage program and the EIA survey, and an endangered species present in the project area was not identified as likely to occur. We believe these differences occurred because of a single-season EIA survey, insufficient trapping effort, a failure to survey an important fauna habitat, the presumption that a threatened species would be absent due to a lack of local records and records in the available habitat types. A comprehensive review and rewrite of the outdated Western Australian EPA vertebrate fauna survey guidelines and a requirement for proponents and environmental practitioners to meet (or exceed) the revised guidelines are the recommended outcomes.

Prevalence of childhood lead poisoning and respiratory disease associated with lead smelter emissions

BackgroundThe city of Port Pirie in South Australia has been a world leading centre for lead and zinc smelting and processing since 1889 that continues to cause contamination of its environment and resident population. This study quantifies the effect of lead and SO2 emissions from Nyrstar Port Pirie Pty Ltd's smelter on blood lead and respiratory health outcomes, respectively, and establishes what air quality values are required to better protect human health. MethodBlood lead and emergency department presentation data collected by South Australia Health (SA Health) and lead in air and SO2 data collected by the South Australian Environment Protection Authority (SAEPA) were obtained and analysed to quantify health outcomes due to smelter emissions in Port Pirie. Regression analysis was used to assess the relationship between the concentration of lead in air and children's blood lead levels between the years of available data: 2003 to 2017. Ambient SO2 concentrations (SAEPA) measured continuously between 2008 and 2018 were 24-hour averaged and compared to daily local emergency department respiratory presentation rates (available from July 2012 to October 2018). Rates of emergency department respiratory presentations at Port Pirie and regional comparators were calculated as age-standardised rates. ResultsThe data show that increases in ambient SO2 concentrations are associated with increased rates of emergency department respiratory presentations of Port Pirie residents, in which children are over-represented. The 30-day rolling average of respiratory presentations was significantly associated (p < 0.05) with incremental increases in SO2. Analysis of the relationship between lead in air and blood lead shows that annual geometric mean air lead concentrations need to be <0.11 μg/m3 to ensure the geometric mean blood lead of Port Pirie children under 5 years is ≤5 μg/dL. For children aged 24 months, lead in air needs to be no greater than 0.082 μg/m3 (annual geometric mean) to ensure geometric mean blood lead does not exceed 5 μg/dL. ConclusionCurrent smelting emissions continue to pose a clear risk of harm to Port Pirie children. Allowable emissions must be lowered significantly to limit adverse childhood health outcomes including respiratory illness and IQ, academic achievement and socio-behavioural problems that are associated with lead exposure at levels experienced by Port Pirie children. Current SO2 levels are likely to be responsible for increased rates of emergency department respiratory presentations in Port Pirie compared with other South Australian locations. As a minimum, Australian SO2 air quality standards need to be enforced in Port Pirie to better protect human health. Lead in air needs to be approximately 80% lower than the current national standard (0.5 μg/m3) to ensure that the geometric blood lead of children under 5 years is less than or equal to 5 μg/dL.

A state-and-transition model to guide grassland management

Grassland ecosystems across the globe have been extensively modified and degraded by agriculture and urban development, leaving conservation managers with a complex set of interacting legacies and opportunities to contend with. We advocate the use of state-and-transition models to assist conservation managers to deal with this complexity. Using a major development and compensation project as a case study (The Melbourne Strategic Assessment under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999), we discuss the uses and limitations of state-and-transition models for conservation management. We define a state-and-transition model for an endangered Australian temperate grassland. Soil and vegetation data are used to evaluate the model and confirm that the assigned states relate to observable agro-ecological patterns. We then discuss the use of this model for several different interacting purposes: as a tool for the simple communication of complex ecological processes; as a tool for landscape stratification to aid the spatial application of management and experimentation; as a framework to set and define conservation objectives; and as an aide for adaptive management.

Camera trapping and transect counts yield complementary insights into an endangered island endemic rail

Island endemic species are disproportionately represented in the tally of global extinctions. The island endemic Cocos buff-banded rail (Hypotaenidia philippensis andrewsi) is classified under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) as Endangered. It is restricted to the remote Cocos (Keeling) Islands in the Indian Ocean where, until 2013, only the island Pulu Keeling supported a population of this species, following earlier extirpations of the bird from islands in the southern atoll. To establish a second viable population to mitigate against potential extinction of this subspecies, 39 rails were reintroduced from Pulu Keeling to Horsburgh Island in April 2013. As a component of post-translocation monitoring, we conducted intensive camera trapping from 29 May 2015 to 30 June 2016 (397 calendar days) to investigate recruitment success, behaviour and potential threats to the population. Biannual transect sampling to monitor and investigate long-term population density was also conducted. We found Cocos buff-banded rail persisting on Horsburgh Island with an increase in the founder population to 97 rails in February 2016. Ongoing recruitment with breeding activity on Horsburgh Island and the emigration of rails to nearby (2.5km) Direction Island is indicative of short-term success. Images from the camera traps have documented behaviours that have not previously been described for the species. House mice were also identified as a potential threat to the Horsburgh Island rail population. Island rail species have suffered a high rate of extinctions, and their conservation remains a formidable challenge, given the risks of continuing introductions of invasive mammalian predator species.

Protecting Migratory Species in the Australian Marine Environment: A Cross-Jurisdictional Analysis of Policy and Management Plans

Marine migratory species are difficult to manage because animal movements can span large areas and are unconstrained by jurisdictional boundaries. We reviewed policy and management plans associated with four case studies protected under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act 1999) in order to identify the coherence of policy and management plans for managing marine migratory species in Australia. Environmental policies (n = 23) and management plans (n = 115) relevant to marine turtles, dugongs, humpback whales, and migratory shorebirds were reviewed. Few of the reviewed policies (n = 7) listed protected species and even fewer (n = 4) listed protected marine migratory species. Marine turtles were most represented in the reviewed policies (n = 7), while migratory shorebirds were most represented in management plans (n = 59). Policies and management plans were much more likely to identify relationships to other policies or plans within the same jurisdiction than to different jurisdictions. The EPBC Act 1999 served as the central link between reviewed policies and plans, but the requirements of that Act were weakly integrated into the other documents. This weak integration and the biases toward specific migratory species in environmental policies and management plans are detrimental to the conservation of these Matters of National Environmental Significance in Australia. Any changes to the EPBC Act 1999 will affect all environmental policy and management plans in Australia and highlights a need for cooperative, multi-level governance of migratory species. Our findings may have relevance to the conservation of marine migratory species in a broader international context.

Revisiting the South Australian Environment Protection Authority 2013 Waterloo study using the Schomer principle

In 2013, the South Australian Environment Protection Authority conducted a 10 week study in relation to noise complaints at the Waterloo wind farm in the Mid North of South Australia. The study involved the use of diaries by 28 households located around the wind farm and noise loggers at 6 dwellings. In analyzing the residents' diaries, the Environment Protection Authority focussed on “noise” events and disregarded comments or observations by the residents which related to other forms of disturbance such as sensation. In the light of the Schomer principle presented in the 2017 ASA meeting in Boston, the 2013 Waterloo study data has been revisited to include an examination of the Power Output and WAV files associated with periods where residents have reported high levels of disturbance.In 2013, the South Australian Environment Protection Authority conducted a 10 week study in relation to noise complaints at the Waterloo wind farm in the Mid North of South Australia. The study involved the use of diaries by 28 households located around the wind farm and noise loggers at 6 dwellings. In analyzing the residents' diaries, the Environment Protection Authority focussed on “noise” events and disregarded comments or observations by the residents which related to other forms of disturbance such as sensation. In the light of the Schomer principle presented in the 2017 ASA meeting in Boston, the 2013 Waterloo study data has been revisited to include an examination of the Power Output and WAV files associated with periods where residents have reported high levels of disturbance.

‘Do you come from a land down under?’ Characteristics of the international trade in Australian endemic parrots

The wildlife pet trade is a billion dollar transnational business that has devastating effects on global biodiversity. Australian parrots are highly sought by overseas collectors due to their uniqueness, however, the characteristics of this demand are poorly understood. We used trade reports to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Trade Database to analyse spatial and temporal trends in live commercial trade of Australian endemic parrots. We also investigated whether the volume of trade is influenced by variables related to species availability and popularity in Australia, and ease of captive breeding. We collected information on over 20,000 transactions for the period 1975–2014. Between the years 2000 and 2005 the volume of trade sharply declined, possibly due to the effect of international bird trade bans as a response to the avian influenza crisis. Australia has a minimal role in the trade of its own endemic parrots, even before the passing of the Australian Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act 1999 that banned the export of native wildlife. Key international exporters are Netherlands (25.8% of all exports) and Belgium (17.5%), and captive breeding is the major source. The USA (7.5% of all imports) and Japan (7.3%) are key importers, and Netherlands, USA and South Africa are also major intermediaries. Species that have larger Australian distributions, and species abundant in Australian private and public captivity, are traded internationally in higher volumes. International trade in Australian endemic parrots is an example of an exotic pet market that is sustainably supplied by overseas captive breeding, while native populations are effectively protected by genuine national trade bans.

Lung function reductions associated with motor vehicle density in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a cross-sectional study.

BackgroundMotor vehicle-related air pollution can potentially impair lung function. The effect of pollution in people with compromised pulmonary function such as in COPD has not been previously investigated. To examine the association of lung function with motor vehicle density in people with spirometrically determined COPD in a cross-sectional study.MethodsIn 2004–06, The North West Adelaide Health Study (NWAHS), a biomedical cohort of adults assessed pre and post-bronchodilator spirometry (n = 3,103). Traffic density, obtained from the motor vehicle inventory maintained by the South Australian Environment Protection Authority, was expressed as the daily numbers of vehicles travelling within a 200 m diameter zone around participants’ geocoded residences.ResultsIn subjects with COPD (FEV1/FVC <0.7, n = 221, 7.1 %), increasing daily vehicle density was associated with statistically significant decreases in lung function parameters after adjustment for smoking and socio-economic variables. Mean (95 % CI) post-bronchodilator % predicted FEV1 was 81 % (76–87) in the low (≤7179/day) compared with 71 % (67–75) in the high (≥15,270/day) vehicle exposure group (p < 0.05). Linear regression analysis in all subjects with COPD showed significant decrements in post-bronchodilator FEV1/FVC ratio and % predicted FEV1 of 0.03 and 0.05 % respectively per daily increase in 1000 vehicles. In men with COPD (n = 150), the corresponding reductions were 0.03 and 0.06 %. Smaller, non-significant decrements were seen in females. No difference was seen in those without COPD.ConclusionsVehicle traffic density was associated with significant reductions in lung function in people with COPD. Urban planning should consider the health impacts for those with pre-existing respiratory conditions.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12931-016-0451-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cryptic diversity within the narrowly endemic Lerista wilkinsi group of north Queensland-two new species (Reptilia: Scincidae).

Herein we describe two new species of the skink genus Lerista from north-eastern Queensland, based on morphological and genetic data. Additionally, we redescribe L. cinerea as this species is morphologically more variable than previously suggested. We allocate these three species to the L. wilkinsi group (Greer et al. 1983) which is here identified as an endemic Queensland radiation, comprising L. ameles, L. cinerea, L. hobsoni sp. nov., L. storri, L. vanderduysi sp. nov., L. vittata and L. wilkinsi. A number of these species have strong associations with semi-evergreen vine thickets, listed as an endangered habitat under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999).

Pass the salt: physiological consequences of ecologically relevant hyposmotic exposure in juvenile gummy sharks (Mustelus antarcticus) and school sharks (Galeorhinus galeus).

Estuarine habitats are frequently used as nurseries by elasmobranch species for their protection and abundant resources; however, global climate change is increasing the frequency and severity of environmental challenges in these estuaries that may negatively affect elasmobranch physiology. Hyposmotic events are particularly challenging for marine sharks that osmoconform, and species-specific tolerances are not well known. Therefore, we sought to determine the effects of an acute (48h) ecologically relevant hyposmotic event (25.8 ppt) on the physiology of two juvenile shark species, namely the school shark (Galeorhinus galeus), listed by the Australian Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act as 'conservation dependent', and the gummy shark (Mustelus antarcticus), from the Pittwater Estuary (Australia). In both species, we observed a decrease in plasma osmolality brought about by selective losses of NaCl, urea and trimethylamine N-oxide, as well as decreases in haemoglobin, haematocrit and routine oxygen consumption. Heat-shock protein levels varied between species during the exposure, but we found no evidence of protein damage in any of the tissues tested. Although both species seemed to be able to cope with this level of osmotic challenge, overall the school sharks exhibited higher gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity and ubiquitin concentrations in routine and experimental conditions, a larger heat-shock protein response and a smaller decrease in routine oxygen consumption during the hyposmotic exposure, suggesting that there are species-specific responses that could potentially affect their ability to withstand longer or more severe changes in salinity. Emerging evidence from acoustic monitoring of sharks has indicated variability in the species found in the Pittwater Estuary during hyposmotic events, and together, our data may help to predict species abundance and distribution in the face of future global climate change.

Using social data in strategic environmental assessment to conserve biodiversity

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is increasingly used to assess land use plans in a way that is broader in spatial, temporal and conceptual scope than traditional Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Meanwhile, conservation scientists have recognised that successful biodiversity conservation outcomes rely on information about both biological priorities and the feasibility of undertaking conservation actions. SEA provides a framework for integrating information on the social determinants of conservation feasibility with supporting environmental legislation in order to achieve enhanced conservation outcomes. In this paper we argue that data on the social context of land use plans are vital to ensure effective biodiversity conservation outcomes that result from SEAs. We explore the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999) (EPBC Act) as a case example of how the integration of these data can be practically achieved within an existing legal process. While a range of social data is relevant to this type of assessment, we focus on the use of spatially-referenced social data in the context of land use planning. When applied to the design and implementation of land use plans, this type of information can improve the acceptability of conservation actions, enhance environmental stewardship, and minimise land use conflict through taking stock of the values and attitudes (precursors to behaviour) that are relevant to proposed land use change and conservation action. Through exploring the integration of these data into each of the stages of SEA under the EPBC Act, we show that opportunities exist to strengthen the effectiveness of SEA in delivering conservation outcomes without altering existing legal processes. Yet, for this to be done effectively, practitioners need to be cognisant of a range of theoretical and methodological challenges related to the generation and interpretation of these data, as well as the socio-political context in which they are applied.

Distribution and conservation status of two endemic Tasmanian crustaceans, Allanaspides hickmani and Allanaspides helonomus (Syncarida: anaspididae)

Extant representatives of the ancient crustacean family Anaspididae (Syncarida) are restricted to the island state of Tasmania, Australia. The most recently described species, Allanaspides helonomus Swain, Wilson, Hickman & Ong, 1970 and A. hickmani Swain, Wilson & Ong, 1971, were described from buttongrass moorland in southwestern Tasmania. Large areas of their habitat were subsequently inundated for hydroelectric power generation. We surveyed the extant distributions of A. hickmani and A. helonomus, assessed potential threats to the species, and reviewed their conservation status against state, national and international criteria. A. hickmani is restricted to a single catchment and occurs in a very small number (<10) of highly fragmented subpopulations on the margins of two hydroelectric impoundments. A. helonomus has a substantially larger range and Area of Occupancy spanning three separate catchments, and is now known to also occur in the Lake Pedder hydro-electric impoundment. Both species are listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. This listing appears warranted for A. hickmani based on its restricted Area of Occupancy and the small number of extant subpopulations. However, A. helonomus no longer appears to fulfil the IUCN criterion for vulnerable. Neither species appears to be eligible for listing as vulnerable under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995. The current listing of A. hickmani as rare under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 appears warranted as extant subpopulations may be at risk of extinction. The level of risk for A. helonomus is considerably lower than is the case for A. hickmani, and A. helonomus may not be eligible for listing as rare. The potential impacts of climate change on buttongrass moorland may present the most serious long-term threat to the two Allanaspides species.

The Trans‐Pacific Partnership Agreement: challenges for Australian health and medicine policies

Four formal rounds of Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPPA) negotiations took place in 2010. They involved over 200 officials from Australia, the United States, New Zealand, Chile, Singapore, Brunei, Peru, Vietnam and Malaysia. Future negotiations officially are set to include three issues with public health and medicines policy implications for Australia and our region: ways to approach regulatory coherence and transparency; how to benefit multinational and small-medium enterprises; and multilateral investor-state dispute settlement. US-based multinational pharmaceutical companies are lobbying for TPPA provisions like those in the Australia-US Free Trade Agreement, which reduce government cost-effectiveness regulatory control of pharmaceuticals, threatening equitable access to medicines. They also advocate increased TPPA intellectual monopoly privilege protection, which will further limit the development of Australian generic medicine enterprises and restrict patient access to cheap, bioequivalent prescription drugs. Of particular concern is that proposed TPPA multilateral investor-state dispute settlement procedures would allow US corporations (as well as those of other TPPA nations) to obtain damages against Australian governments through international arbitral proceedings if their investments are impeded by Australian public health and environment protection legislation.

New Zealand lacks comprehensive threatened species legislation ? comparison with legislation in Australia and the USA

New Zealand lacks dedicated threatened species legislation which is hindering the effective recovery of the country?s threatened species. Few of New Zealand?s recorded threatened species receive active management. New Zealand is recognized as a biodiversity hotspot which has undergone widespread anthropogenic change in a relatively short time. Using its own threat classification system based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List, but modified to suit the island characteristics of its biota, New Zealand has identified 2,788 species and subspecies within 14 taxonomic groups that are threatened with extinction. However, this level of awareness of the threatened state of New Zealand?s biota is not supported by comprehensive threatened species legislation. We reviewed New Zealand?s current legislation for the management and recovery of threatened species and made a comparison with the US Endangered Species Act 1973 (ESA1973) and the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Act 1999 (EPBC1999). We argue that New Zealand needs to develop similar legislation to the ESA1973 and EPBC1999 to enable an integrated and legally accountable approach to the management and recovery of threatened species. A strength of the ESA1973 and EPBC1999 is that species that have been assessed to be threatened with extinction are listed on a central government register with a legal mandate for the production of recovery plans. A weakness of both acts is that species can languish on these lists without effective recovery actions. Although not always implemented, both acts have the provision for the protection and conservation of critical habitat.