Auschwitz II-Birkenau Research Articles

Analysis of causes of damage to masonry walls in the historic barrack No. B-115 in the former KL Auschwitz II – Birkenau camp

The brick barracks in the former German Nazi Concentration and Extermination camp KL Auschwitz II-Birkenau hold historical importance and are protected by law through their inclusion in the register of historical monuments. They are also inscribed on the World Heritage List. One of these barracks is known as B-115. It was originally constructed as a temporary building during the autumn and winter of 1941 and 1942. The materials used for its construction were obtained from dismantled houses in nearby villages. The walls of barrack B-115 have sustained damage in several areas. The exterior walls have experienced corrosion due to exposure to environmental factors. Inside the barrack, there are cracks and areas where the walls are breaking apart. The most severe damage is seen in the gable walls, which have become deformed and detached from the lateral walls. Additionally, there are extensive damages in the connections between the lateral walls and external longitudinal walls. The partition walls have also cracked, and concentrated forces have caused further cracks in certain areas. By analysing the documented types of damage and their causes, the repair plans aim to address and eliminate the identified sources of damage. The renovation is designed to minimize intervention in the historical layers of the barrack while preserving its documentary value. It will also ensure that visitors have safe access to the site.

Classification and Significance of Material Culture from Archaeological Research of Section BIb of the Former KL Auschwitz II - Birkenau

This article discusses the analysis of material discovered during archaeological excavations conducted in the areas of former concentration camps, based on the results of work carried out on the site of the former German concentration and extermination camp Auschwitz II-Birkenau. The specificity of the sites from the 20th century forces the development of new research methods and procedures, slightly different from those traditionally used in archaeology. One of the significant problems is the mass nature of the discovered artefacts. These items were substantially made of decay-resistant materials such as plastic, glass or metal alloys. In addition to the amount of acquired items, difficulties are also caused due to the way they are classified and processed. The classifications used in traditional archaeology, focusing primarily on the type of raw material used to produce the artefact, have proven to be unsuitable.

Archaeological Research on the Former KL Auschwitz I and KL Auschwitz II-Birkenau Site

For many years Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum has been conducting excavation works on the site of the former German concentration and extermination camp Auschwitz II-Birkenau, related to the implementation of projects to preserve the authenticity and other ad hoc maintenance works, as well as those related to the extension of the necessary infrastructure network in the area of the former camp. These works, carried out in various parts of the former Birkenau, are subject to obligatory archaeological research. Over the years, a large number of reports on archaeological works have been collected. Researchers faced the challenge of accumulating dispersed archaeological information, mainly about the location of archaeological research sites and about the findings that were noted during the works. The chosen solution was the use of GIS software. Initially, this was QGIS, which is to be replaced by ArcGIS Pro over time. This makes it possible to place excavation sites in a generalised form on a map (contemporary or historical) or on a properly prepared aerial photo (for any year from the years available: 1944-2022). The outline of the excavation in the above-mentioned programs is interactive with the user. The description of the findings from a given place is added to it. The set of data thus prepared can then be filtered and selected, like in a popular spreadsheet. The amount of information on one map can be enhanced with underground infrastructure networks (as information about possible collisions) and road and construction infrastructure of the camp area which enables better orientation in the surroundings. Introduction of the possibilities of deeper analytics of large data sets is the main basis for outlining the possibilities of Geographic Information Systems.

Antifungal Activity of Polyoxometalate-Ionic Liquids on Historical Brick.

Moulds inhabiting mineral-based materials may cause their biodeterioration, contributing to inestimable losses, especially in the case of cultural heritage objects and architectures. Fungi in mouldy buildings may also pose a threat to human health and constitute the main etiological factor in building related illnesses. In this context, research into novel compounds with antifungal activity is of high importance. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antifungal activity of polyoxometalate-ionic liquids (POM-ILs) and their use in the eradication of moulds from historical brick. In the disc diffusion assay, all the tested POM-ILs inhibited growth of a mixed culture of moulds including Engyodontium album, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Alternaria alternata and Aspergillus fumigatus. These were isolated from the surfaces of historical brick barracks at the Auschwitz II-Birkenau State Museum in Oświęcim, Poland. POM-IL coatings on historical brick samples, under model conditions, showed that two compounds demonstrated very high antifungal activity, completely limiting mould growth and development. The antifungal activity of the POM-ILs appeared to stem from their toxic effects on conidia, as evidenced by environmental scanning transmission electron microscopy observations. The results herein indicated that POM-ILs are promising disinfectant materials for use not only on historical objects, but probably also on other mineral-based materials.

Analysis of stabilisation method of gable walls of a barrack located at the section BI of the former KL Auschwitz II-Birkenau

The subject of the article is an analysis of the stabilisation method of the western gable walls of a barrack with the inventory number B-123, situated at the section BI of the former German Nazi concentration and extermination camp Auschwitz II-Birkenau. The barracks of the former Birkenau have a documentary and historical value and are subject to protective conservation. A barrack with inv. no. B-123 had been erected in the last months of 1941 as a residential barrack, then it was used as a hospital facility. The barrack walls are characterised by low stiffness, because with the building’s plan of 36.17 m  11.39 m, the walls are only 0.12 m thick. Gable walls have been greatly deformed, as a result they have detached from longitudinal walls and their deflection is up to 120 mm. The construction of the walls is at risk, because a bad-quality wall is loaded with horizontal and vertical forces transmitted from the roof, on the eccentricity reaching 120 mm. Deformations are progressing as a consequence of such forces and the walls must be stabilised. In case of the western wall, it was decided to stop its further deformation and to increase the local carrying capacity by stabilising with steel elements connected with ties anchored in the ground. Given the historical value of the plasters with paint coats layers covering the wall, it was decided not to remove the wall deformation mechanically. For the eastern wall, which is not covered with plaster and was partly reconstructed after the war, the removal of its deflection by rectification was designed.

Condition of Reinforced Concrete Structures and Their Degradation Mechanism at the Former Auschwitz Concentration and Extermination Camp

ABSTRACTThis paper presents the results of investigations on reinforced concrete structures present in the former Auschwitz I and Auschwitz II-Birkenau concentration and extermination camp. Field inspection employing the non-destructive method of reinforcement potential measurement according to the ASTM-C 876–15 standard, followed by laboratory investigations performed on genuine historic reinforced concrete samples collected from the former Auschwitz camp, allowed assessment of the actual condition of this 70-year-old construction material. Electrochemical potential measurements allowed mapping of the regions characterized by enhanced reinforcement corrosion risk and the regions of its immunity. The composition of concrete, water absorbency, content of detrimental salts, and degree and profile of carbonation as well as mechanical properties were evaluated. Results revealed the most common and probable mechanism responsible for degradation of the reinforced concrete structures in the former Auschwitz camp.

Encountering Auschwitz: touring the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum

ABSTRACTThe Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, situated on the sites of the former concentration and death camps Auschwitz I and Auschwitz II-Birkenau, has become one of Europe's most popular tourist destinations. Scholarly critiques of the site focus on the ramifications of Holocaust tourism and the motivations of visitors. This article expands the conversation by investigating the types of historical encounters available at the site for those who seek them. It critiques the English-language guided group tours provided by the museum, placing emphasis on representative tropes connected to ethical concerns raised about the 'museumification' of the site by contemporary dark tourism scholarship.

Corrosivity of environment and the current state of the steel elements at the former Auschwitz concentration camp

The objective of this study was to assess corrosivity of the atmospheric environment in the former Auschwitz I and Auschwitz II-Birkenau concentration and extermination camp, and to identify the protective properties of existing corrosion products in order to estimate the actual corrosion rate of original steel elements located there. The current atmospheric corrosivity of the former Auschwitz camp, specified during one year of exposure of steel samples according to the EN ISO 12944-2 (1998) standard, was determined and it can be described as a boundary between the low C2 and medium C3. The steel corrosion rate in these conditions was in the range of 14–34 µm/year with the average rate of 27 µm/year. A layer of corrosion products formed on uncovered original reinforcement steel rods during ca. 70 years of atmospheric exposure was examined in terms of their protective properties with respect to steel. The microstructure, chemical composition, and elemental chemical state were analyzed by means of scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. Potentiodynamic polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy methods were employed to investigate the corrosion resistance of the carbon steel covered with a layer of corrosion products. It has been estimated that this layer slows down the corrosion rate of steel by about five times. Hence, it can be concluded that the corrosion rate of the original steel parts under the layer of corrosion products should not exceed 7 µm/year.

Protection of Historical Wood against Microbial Degradation-Selection and Application of Microbiocides.

The aim of this study was to select effective and safe microbiocides for the disinfection and protection of historical wooden surfaces at the former Auschwitz II-Birkenau concentration and extermination camp. We tested seven active compounds against bacteria and moulds, of which didecyldimethylammonium chloride and N-(3-aminopropyl)-N-dodecylpropane-1,3-diamine were effective even at 0.02%–2%. Subsequently, eight microbiocides containing the selected active ingredients were chosen and applied three times on the surface of wood samples colonized by bacteria and moulds. ABM-1 and ABM-2—6% solution; Rocima 101—8%; Preventol R 80—12%; Acticide 706 LV—15% and Boramon—30% were the most effective disinfectants. Under laboratory conditions, ABM-1, Boramon and Rocima 101 ensured antimicrobial protection of new wood samples for six months. In situ, 30% Boramon and 8% Rocima 101 applied by spraying effectively protected the historical wood from bacterial and mould growth for 12 and 3 months, respectively. Colour and luminance of the new wood were not altered after exposure to the biocides. Boramon and Rocima 101, applied by the spraying method, caused no significant change in the colour of the historical wood. Results from this study were used to develop a procedure for the protection of wood in historical buildings against biodeterioration.

Experimental research of masonry compressive strength in the Auschwitz II - Birkenau former death camp buildings

Abstract The paper presents the results of strength tests of brick masonry in 14 prisoner barracks located at the Auschwitz II-Birkenau former death camp. These buildings were constructed in a few months in 1941, that is in the initial phase of the extermination camp. Strength tests were conducted as part of a broad program whose purpose was to document the condition of the camp buildings being invaluable historical material objects. Due to the nature of the historical buildings a broad program has been consulted with the services of conservation. Strength tests of masonry and masonry materials (bricks and mortars) were performed on small-diameter core samples cut from the original structures of buildings in the camp. In addition, comparative tests were carried out on samples made in the laboratory. Results and their analysis made it possible to estimate the compressive strength of masonry, bricks and mortars in the brick buildings erected more than 70 years ago. The performed documentation of brick walls and identification of strength parameters are an important stage of the planned preservation process, the ultimate goal is to preserve the historic buildings for future generations.

Concrete Properties in Selected Auschwitz II-birkenau Former Death Camp Building

The article presents the results of research on some selected properties of concrete taken from the foundations, walls and ceilings of the infrastructure facilities in the Auschwitz II-Birkenau former death camp. The research was conducted as part of a broad program aimed at the diagnosis and documentation of the condition of the camp buildings, as material historical objects associated with martyrdom. Due to the nature of the buildings, a research program has been developed to minimize the effects of damage associated with sampling. The research was carried out on core samples taken from parts of the camp buildings’ structures. Results and analysis made it possible to estimate compression strength and concrete degradation and to develop a method to strengthen the concrete. The resulting information on the strength properties were used for computational analyzes determining the level of safety of the facilities concerned.

Restoration and preservation of the reinforced concrete poles of fence at the former Auschwitz concentration and extermination camp

The objective of this study was to assess the present state of the reinforced concrete poles of fence at the former Auschwitz I and Auschwitz II-Birkenau concentration and extermination camp. The poles were subjected to renovation about 10 years ago. After this time some deficiencies of applied renovation method were noticed. Cracks appeared between fresh and original part of concrete cover. Analysis of the reasons of these failures was performed and a modification of used restoration method was proposed to overcome this deficiency. The modification consists in application of sacrificial anodes mounted outside the pole, in soil and inside the concrete cover.

Metabolomic and high-throughput sequencing analysis-modern approach for the assessment of biodeterioration of materials from historic buildings.

Preservation of cultural heritage is of paramount importance worldwide. Microbial colonization of construction materials, such as wood, brick, mortar, and stone in historic buildings can lead to severe deterioration. The aim of the present study was to give modern insight into the phylogenetic diversity and activated metabolic pathways of microbial communities colonized historic objects located in the former Auschwitz II–Birkenau concentration and extermination camp in Oświecim, Poland. For this purpose we combined molecular, microscopic and chemical methods. Selected specimens were examined using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM), metabolomic analysis and high-throughput Illumina sequencing. FESEM imaging revealed the presence of complex microbial communities comprising diatoms, fungi and bacteria, mainly cyanobacteria and actinobacteria, on sample surfaces. Microbial diversity of brick specimens appeared higher than that of the wood and was dominated by algae and cyanobacteria, while wood was mainly colonized by fungi. DNA sequences documented the presence of 15 bacterial phyla representing 99 genera including Halomonas, Halorhodospira, Salinisphaera, Salinibacterium, Rubrobacter, Streptomyces, Arthrobacter and nine fungal classes represented by 113 genera including Cladosporium, Acremonium, Alternaria, Engyodontium, Penicillium, Rhizopus, and Aureobasidium. Most of the identified sequences were characteristic of organisms implicated in deterioration of wood and brick. Metabolomic data indicated the activation of numerous metabolic pathways, including those regulating the production of primary and secondary metabolites, for example, metabolites associated with the production of antibiotics, organic acids and deterioration of organic compounds. The study demonstrated that a combination of electron microscopy imaging with metabolomic and genomic techniques allows to link the phylogenetic information and metabolic profiles of microbial communities and to shed new light on biodeterioration processes.

The use of terrestrial laser scanning in monitoring of the residential barracks at the site of the former concentration camp Auschwitz II-Birkenau

The use of terrestrial laser scanning in monitoring of the residential barracks at the site of the former concentration camp Auschwitz II-Birkenau

Diversity of an aerial phototrophic coating of historic buildings in the former Auschwitz II-Birkenau concentration camp

Aerial phototrophs colonize materials of anthropogenic origin, thus contributing to their biodeterioration. Structures preserved at the former Auschwitz II-Birkenau concentration and extermination camp show signs of degradation by cyanobacteria and algae. In order to protect the Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial Site, diversity of aerial phototrophs growing on the historic buildings has been studied. Analyses of cyanobacterial and algal biofilms growing on various construction substrates were carried out in summer and winter. Multivariate data analyses were used to: characterize the diversity of cyanobacteria and algae growing in brick and wooden camp buildings depending on the research season, indicate preferences of cyanobacteria and algae in colonizing substrates, and to predict the environmental factor that most determines the growth of phototrophs. The biofilms were formed mainly by cyanobacteria, green algae and diatoms. The amount of cyanobacteria and algae in the biofilms was varied, which resulted from changes in climatic conditions, the type of substrate and the height at which the biofilms developed. In the summer, the ratio of cyanobacteria and algae groups was balanced, while in the winter, green algae and diatoms were dominant. Green algae showed a preference for colonizing plaster, wood and concrete, of which the walls and doors of the buildings were made. Their participation was correlated with a height gradient. Cyanobacteria and diatoms grew on bricks and soil on the floor of the buildings and temperature and relative humidity were the factors that modified their amount. Green algae were more cosmopolitan—occurred in dry places, potentially inaccessible to other organisms; therefore, they have been identified as the pioneer group in the prevailing climatic conditions.

Assessment of biological colonization of historic buildings in the former Auschwitz II-Birkenau concentration camp.

The objective of this study was to assess biological colonization of wooden and brick buildings in the former Auschwitz II-Birkenau concentration camp, and to identify the organisms colonizing the examined buildings. Microbiological analysis did not reveal increased microbial activity, and the total microbial count of the barrack surfaces did not exceed 103 CFU/100 cm2. However, certain symptoms of biodegradation of the buildings were observed. The predominant microflora consisted of bacteria of the genera Bacillus, Sporosarcina, Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, Streptomyces, and Staphylococcus, as well as fungi of the genera Acremonium, Cladosporium, Alternaria, Humicola, Penicillium, and Chaetomium. The microflora patterns varied both in wooden and brick buildings. The structural elements of wooden and brick barracks, and especially of the floors and lower parts of bathroom walls, were infected by cyanobacteria and algae, with the most numerous being cyanobacteria of the genera Scytonema, Chroococcus, Gloeothece, Leptolyngbya, diatoms of the genus Diadesmis, and chlorophytes of the genera Chlorella and Apatococcus. The outer surfaces of the examined buildings were primarily colonized by lichens and bryophytes, with nearly 30 species identified. The dominant species of lichens belonged to the genera Candelariella, Caloplaca, Lecanora, Lecidea, Lepraria, Physcia, and Protoparmeliopsis, and those of bryophytes to the genera Bryum, Ceratodon, Marchantia, and Tortula. The quantity and species diversity of lichens and mosses were much lower in wooden barracks than in brick ones. The external surfaces of those barracks were only affected by Lecanora conizaeoides, Lecanora symmicta, Lepraria cf. incana, and Strangospora pinicola. The study results revealed vast biodiversity among the species colonizing historic buildings. The presence of these groups of organisms, resulting from their natural expansion in the environment, is undesirable, as their excessive growth and spread may lead to progressive biodegradation of buildings. Our assessment of biological contamination will enable the development of a disinfection and conservation plan for the examined buildings.