Auditory Learning Research Articles

NCMP-19. IMPACT OF SUBVENTRICULAR ZONE INVASION ON PREOPERATIVE COGNITIVE DECLINE IN DIFFUSE GLIOMA PATIENTS

Abstract PURPOSE To determine the impact of subventricular zone (SVZ) invasion on neurocognitive dysfunction in diffuse glioma patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS We collected neuropsychological assessments of treatment-naïve WHO grade 2-4 diffuse glioma patients between 2017 to 2023. The Chi-square test determined the odds ratio (OR), and multiple linear regression identified factors related to cognitive deficits using Python 3.11.4. RESULTS Of the 129 patients, 64 exhibited SVZ invasion (SVZ+) while 65 were SVZ-. Groups were matched for WHO grading. SVZ+ was associated with more defective domains than SVZ- in both lower grade (WHO grade 2,3, 3.2 ± 2.1 vs. 2.1 ± 1.9, p=0.019) and high grade (WHO grade 4, 4.9 ± 1.6 vs. 3.6 ± 2.2, p=0.019) tumors. In lower grade gliomas, SVZ+ increased risks of language (OR 7.500, p<0.001) and visual learning impairments (OR 4.375, p=0.014). In high grade gliomas, SVZ+ rendered greater language (OR 8.556, p=0.003) and auditory learning vulnerability (OR 3.850, p=0.039). In right hemispheric tumors, SVZ+ lesions conferred worse executive (OR 6.667, p=0.006) and language function (OR 9.063, p=0.017); in left hemispheric tumors, SVZ+ lesions increased language (OR 3.125, p=0.012) and auditory learning (OR 2.889, p=0.024) impairment. Frontal horn of SVZ+ was related to working memory decline, and body part of SVZ+ was related to emotional deficits. Age and WHO grade 4 were associate with more defective domains in the SVZ+ group. In the SVZ- group, parietal lobe tumor was associate with more defective domains, while high education, temporal lobe, and WHO grade 2 were associate with fewer defective domains. CONCLUSION SVZ invasion impacts pre-operative neurocognitive function regardless of lesion laterality and WHO grade. Distinct SVZ sub-regions are linked to specific cognitive impairments. These findings highlight the need for precise tumor mapping involving the SVZ to evaluate neurocognitive outcomes and consider preventive or rehabilitative interventions.

A fully automated social interaction chamber for studying social threat learning in mice

Social interactions are fundamental for our survival as a predominately social species. We need and seek positive social interactions to navigate the world. However, when social interactions are negative, and occur in the presence of an aversive event, learning occurs to associate such social interactions as threatening. Gaining insight into the neural circuits that drive social threat learning is crucial for understanding social interactions. Animal models can be leveraged to employ technologies that allow us to track neuronal processes with very high resolution to obtain a better understanding of the neural circuits involved. To accomplish this, we need robust behavioral models that are replicable and high throughput. Here, we present an open-source social interaction chamber that detects social interaction and automatically pairs it with foot shock. The social interaction chamber is designed to easily integrate into modular chambers commonly used for auditory and context threat learning. It contains an array of optical gates that precisely track mouse-to-mouse interactions in real time with digital triggers that can communicate with external devices to deliver a foot shock. We find that pairing social interactions with electric foot shock using our fully automated social interaction chamber is optimal for social threat associations. We further demonstrate that timing of social contact with foot shock produces optimal learning.

The Influence of Learning Styles on the Learning Outcomes of IPS Students Semester II of PGSD Uhkbpnp Study Program

This study aims to determine the effect of learning styles on the learning outcomes of students of the second semester of the Elementary School Teacher Education Study Program, UHKBPNP. This study is a quantitative study that is correlational in nature, which involves a variable that is related between one variable and another. Location of the study This research will be conducted at HKBP Nommensen University, PEmatangsiantar on students of the second semester of the Elementary School Teacher Education Study Program. The data collection technique used is the Learning Style Questionnaire and Documentation. The data analysis technique uses statistical data with the product moment correlation formula, namely the correlation test used to determine the degree of closeness of the relationship between 2 variables with interval and ratio scales. In testing this prerequisite test, IBM SPSS is used. The results of the calculation of the analysis of variance on the differences in social studies learning outcomes between students who have a visual learning style and an auditory learning style with an average = 76.28 and = 70.35. Based on F h = 64.80 and the table value for a= 0.05 with dk (1) it is obtained F t = 3.97 so that it can be stated that F h (64.80) > F t (3.97). Thus the research findings conclude the research hypothesis which states: the learning outcomes of social studies students who have a visual learning style are higher than the learning outcomes of students who have an auditory learning style at a confidence level a= 0.05 has been proven to be true.

The Role of Multi-sensory Learning Activities on Iraqi Preparatory School Pupils' Communication

The research aims to identify how multi-sensory learning activities affect the communication growth of Iraqi preparatory school pupils as well as how those pupils' communication skills evolve in the classroom. Multi-sensory learning activities engage multiple senses (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile) to enhance information processing and retention. By incorporating diverse sensory stimuli, these activities create rich and engaging learning experiences that cater to various learning styles. The research is hypothetical in that, in the posttest for Visual Learning Pupils, posttest for Auditory Learning Pupils, posttest for Kinesthetic Learning Pupils, and posttest for Tactile Learning Pupils communication test, The mean scores of the experimental groups and the control group differ statistically significantly. In the current research, 100 fifth-stage pupils were chosen during the academic year 2023–2024 from Aghalar Preparatory School for Boys. Every group is equal in terms of age and parents' level of education. The researcher statistically analyzed the data collected from the four post-test outcomes using one-way, two-way, three-way, and four-way ANOVA (analysis of variance) to gauge the pupils' post-test communication. Multi-sensory learning activities are more successful than using the traditional approach for communication, The results demonstrate a statistically significant difference in mean scores between the experimental groups and the control group. Concluding remarks, suggestions for more research, and recommendations complete the research.

The Domain-Specific Neural Basis of Auditory Statistical Learning in 5-7-Year-Old Children.

Statistical learning (SL) is the ability to rapidly track statistical regularities and learn patterns in the environment. Recent studies show that SL is constrained by domain-specific features, rather than being a uniform learning mechanism across domains and modalities. This domain-specificity has been reflected at the neural level, as SL occurs in regions primarily involved in processing of specific modalities or domains of input. However, our understanding of how SL is constrained by domain-specific features in the developing brain is severely lacking. The present study aims to identify the functional neural profiles of auditory SL of linguistic and nonlinguistic regularities among children. Thirty children between 5 and 7 years old completed an auditory fMRI SL task containing interwoven sequences of structured and random syllable/tone sequences. Using traditional group univariate analyses and a group-constrained subject-specific analysis, frontal and temporal cortices showed significant activation when processing structured versus random sequences across both linguistic and nonlinguistic domains. However, conjunction analyses failed to identify overlapping neural indices across domains. These findings are the first to compare brain regions supporting SL of linguistic and nonlinguistic regularities in the developing brain and indicate that auditory SL among developing children may be constrained by domain-specific features.

Analysis of Learning Styles Based on Indonesian Language Learning Outcomes in Elementary School Students

Understanding students' learning styles is a key factor in effective learning, as it helps teachers optimize the teaching and learning process and improve student success. This study aims to examine the relationship between students' learning styles and learning outcomes in the Indonesian language subject. The research uses a survey method with a sample of 46 fifth-grade elementary school students using saturated sampling techniques. The results indicate that the majority of students have a kinesthetic learning style (43.5%), followed by visual learning styles (30.4%) and auditory styles (26.1%). The learning outcomes of visual learners are higher compared to the others, with an average score of 84.3 in the good category, while auditory learners perform better than kinesthetic learners but lower than visual learners, with an average score of 81.4 in the fair category, whereas kinesthetic learners have lower results compared to the others, with an average score of 79.5 in the fair category. This suggests that a teaching process that does not consider the diversity of learning styles can negatively impact students' learning outcomes. Therefore, teachers need to pay attention to students' learning styles to enhance learning effectiveness so that students' learning outcomes can be optimal.

DAMPAK PODCAST SEBAGAI MEDIA KOMUNIKASI BARU TERHADAP GAYA BELAJAR MAHASISWA INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI DAN BISNIS TRENGGALEK

information and introducing new ways of learning. Its presence has brought new flexibility to education, allowing students to study while doing other activities. However, the impact on student learning styles still needs to be understood more deeply, especially in academic environments such as the Trenggalek Institute of Technology and Business. Student learning styles, which are individual preferences for processing information, can be influenced by the use of technology such as podcasts. Therefore, this research aims to investigate how the use of podcasts influences the learning styles of students at Trenggalek Institute of Technology and Business. The literature review shows that podcasts, as an audiovisual medium, can cater to a variety of learning styles. However, student responses to the use of podcasts in learning contexts still need further research. This research uses a descriptive qualitative approach and literature review methods to collect and analyze data. Results show that podcasts provide flexibility in time and place, access to diverse resources, and support auditory learning styles. However, some negative aspects such as lack of visual support and potential distractions also need to be considered

Impact of Cognitive and Psychological Functions in Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis: A Cross-Sectional Study.

To compare the cognitive functions and trait anxiety in patients diagnosed with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) to those of matched healthy controls (HCs). In addition, the study aims to investigate the correlations among cognitive functions, anxiety, depression, and quality of life (QOL) in this clinical population. The sample included RRMS patients (n = 21) and an equal number of age-, education-, and sex-matched HCs. Participants were assessed on the Indian version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV, auditory and visual learning and memory, and visual-spatial construction and memory. RRMS patients were also assessed for levels of anxiety, depression, and their QOL. Comparative analyses between RRMS patients and HCs were carried out for neuropsychological assessments. Correlations among cognitive functions, anxiety, depression, and QOL in RRMS patients were examined. RRMS patients showed significant deficits across various cognitive domains, including processing speed and verbal learning, compared to HCs (P < 0.05). In addition, they reported higher levels of trait anxiety compared to HCs (P < 0.01), along with moderate state anxiety and mild depression. A significant correlation among anxiety, depression, and QOL was observed in RRMS patients. This study highlights significant cognitive impairments and psychological distress experienced by RRMS individuals, underscoring the critical need for comprehensive care addressing both cognitive impairments and psychological distress to enhance QOL.

Chunk Duration Limits the Learning of Multiword Chunks: Behavioral and Electroencephalogram Evidence from Statistical Learning.

Language comprehension involves the grouping of words into larger multiword chunks. This is required to recode information into sparser representations to mitigate memory limitations and counteract forgetting. It has been suggested that electrophysiological processing time windows constrain the formation of these units. Specifically, the period of rhythmic neural activity (i.e., slow-frequency neural oscillations) may set an upper limit of 2-3 sec. Here, we assess whether learning of new multiword chunks is also affected by this neural limit. We applied an auditory statistical learning paradigm of an artificial language while manipulating the duration of to-be-learnt chunks. Participants listened to isochronous sequences of disyllabic pseudowords from which they could learn hidden three-word chunks based on transitional probabilities. We presented chunks of 1.95, 2.55, and 3.15 sec that were created by varying the pause interval between pseudowords. In a first behavioral experiment, we tested learning using an implicit target detection task. We found better learning for chunks of 2.55 sec as compared to longer durations in line with an upper limit of the proposed time constraint. In a second experiment, we recorded participants' electroencephalogram during the exposure phase to use frequency tagging as a neural index of statistical learning. Extending the behavioral findings, results show a significant decline in neural tracking for chunks exceeding 3 sec as compared to both shorter durations. Overall, we suggest that language learning is constrained by endogenous time constraints, possibly reflecting electrophysiological processing windows.

The Influence of Learning Styles and Attitudes on Academic Performance of College Students in a Flipped Learning Environment

This study looks into how flipped classrooms affect college students with different kinds of learning styles, attitudes, and academic performance. The purpose of the study is to provide empirical support for the effectiveness of the flipped classroom model in accommodating a variety of learning styles. Survey questionnaires and midterm grades of students were used as instruments for data analysis on 85 participants in a state university in the Philippines. Statistical tools such as frequency counts, percentages, mean, standard deviation, Kruskal-Wallis test, and Kendall's tau-b were employed for a comprehensive analysis. The data analysis revealed that a majority of respondents identified as auditory learners, expressing agreement with the flipped classroom model and demonstrating excellent performance within this learning environment. Significantly, the positive attitude and excellent performance exhibited no significant differences across various learning styles. Clear evidence emerged indicating that a positive attitude toward the flipped classroom correlated with exceptional academic achievements. Consequently, the study implies that the flipped classroom proves effective in catering to diverse learning styles while maintaining students' excellent academic performance. Furthermore, it could be concluded that their positive attitude in a flipped classroom model have boosted their academic performance in general. Understanding the connection between students' attitudes toward particular pedagogical approaches and their academic performance offers important insights that can greatly enhance the processes of teaching and learning, resulting in better educational outcomes fostering a positive learning environment.

Early Caregiver Predictability Shapes Neural Indices of Statistical Learning Later in Infancy.

Caregivers play an outsized role in shaping early life experiences and development, but we often lack mechanistic insight into how exactly caregiver behavior scaffolds the neurodevelopment of specific learning processes. Here, we capitalized on the fact that caregivers differ in how predictable their behavior is to ask if infants' early environmental input shapes their brains' later ability to learn about predictable information. As part of an ongoing longitudinal study in South Africa, we recorded naturalistic, dyadic interactions between 103 (46 females and 57 males) infants and their primary caregivers at 3-6 months of age, from which we calculated the predictability of caregivers' behavior, following caregiver vocalization and overall. When the same infants were 6-12-months-old they participated in an auditory statistical learning task during EEG. We found evidence of learning-related change in infants' neural responses to predictable information during the statistical learning task. The magnitude of statistical learning-related change in infants' EEG responses was associated with the predictability of their caregiver's vocalizations several months earlier, such that infants with more predictable caregiver vocalization patterns showed more evidence of statistical learning later in the first year of life. These results suggest that early experiences with caregiver predictability influence learning, providing support for the hypothesis that the neurodevelopment of core learning and memory systems is closely tied to infants' experiences during key developmental windows.

Systematic changes in neural selectivity reflect the acquired salience of category-diagnostic dimensions.

Humans and other animals develop remarkable behavioral specializations for identifying, differentiating, and acting on classes of ecologically important signals. Ultimately, this expertise is flexible enough to support diverse perceptual judgments: a voice, for example, simultaneously conveys what a talker says as well as myriad cues about her identity and state. Mature perception across complex signals thus involves both discovering and learning regularities that best inform diverse perceptual judgments, and weighting this information flexibly as task demands change. Here, we test whether this flexibility may involve endogenous attentional gain to task-relevant dimensions. We use two prospective auditory category learning tasks to relate a complex, entirely novel soundscape to four classes of "alien identity" and two classes of "alien size." Identity, but not size, categorization requires discovery and learning of patterned acoustic input situated in one of two simultaneous, frequency-delimited bands. This allows us to capitalize on the coarsely segregated frequency-band-specific channels of auditory tonotopic maps using fMRI to ask whether category-relevant perceptual information is prioritized relative to simultaneous, uninformative information. Among participants expert at alien identity categorization, we observe prioritization of the diagnostic frequency band that persists even when the diagnostic information becomes irrelevant in the size categorization task. Tellingly, the neural selectivity evoked implicitly in categorization aligns closely with activation driven by explicit, sustained selective attention to other sounds presented in the same frequency band. Additionally, we observe fingerprints of individual differences in the learning trajectories taken to achieve expert-level categorization in patterns of neural activity associated with the diagnostic dimension. In all, this indicates that acquiring categories can drive the emergence of acquired attentional salience to dimensions of acoustic input.

Comparing auditory and visual category learning

Comparing auditory and visual category learning

B - 89 Evaluation of the Differential Effect of Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety Symptoms as Predictors of Verbal Learning and Memory Performance

Abstract Objective Anxiety is known to exacerbate cognitive difficulties associated with aging; however, little it is less clear how specific symptoms of anxiety, particularly cognitive and somatic symptoms, impact learning and memory performance among older adults. This study explored the relationship between moderate-to-severe symptoms of cognitive and somatic anxiety on auditory learning and memory performance. Method A sample of 95 outpatients referred for neuropsychological were administered the California Verbal Learning Test -3rd Edition-Brief Form (CVLT), Wechsler Memory Scales – 4th Edition Logical Memory (LM), and the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) as part of a standardized battery. Results The sample was 45.3% female and 50.5% black (Age: M = 64.69, SD = 8.1; Education: M = 13.60, SD = 3.0). BAI items were dichotomized into somatic and cognitive symptoms. Items rated as moderate or severe were summed to create total somatic anxiety (S-Anx), and cognitive (C-Anx), and total moderate–severe (T-Anx) scores. Regression analyses indicated that T-Anx and S-Anx, significantly predicted CVLT Trial 1 (T1) learning (β = −0.24; β = −0.24, respectively) and total learning performance (β = −0.20; β = −0.23, respectively). C-Anx predicted T1 learning (β = −0.22,), but not total learning. None of the anxiety scales predicted CVLT delayed recall, nor LM learning or retrieval. Conclusion Multiple regression revealed that S-Anx remained a significant predictor of total learning when controlling for C-Anx. Findings indicate that both moderate-to-severe somatic and cognitive anxiety impact unstructured auditory one-trial learning, while somatic anxiety has a more broad impact on learning over trials, which was sustained after controlling for the effect of cognitive anxiety, suggesting potentially independent symptom construct clusters.

The presence of cognitive impairments in the acute phase of traumatic upper limb injuries: A cross-sectional observational study

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to investigate the association between cognitive impairments and traumatic upper limb injuries of the acute phase. Material and methodsA cross-sectional observational study was conducted with three groups: a nerve-injury group, a without nerve injury group, and a control group (uninjured participants). Demographic characteristics (e.g. age, sex, body mass index, and education) and traumatic characteristics (duration since injury, injury side, pain, light touch sensation, hand motor function) were recorded. Short-term memory and executive functions were assessed using Rey Auditory and Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) and Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT, including SIECT and SIECN), respectively. ResultsThe study comprised 43 participants in the nerve-injury group, 30 participants in the group without nerve injury, and 104 participants in the control group. Generalized linear model was applied to explore the difference of cognitive functions among three groups with impactors. Significantly poorer performance on the RAVLT was observed in the nerve-injury group compared to the other two groups, and lower score of SIECT in nerve-injury group was lower compared to the control group. However, there was no significant difference of SIECN among three groups. In addition, traumatic characteristics did not significantly impact RAVLT and SIECT (p > 0.05) in all injured participants. ConclusionTraumatic nerve injury to the upper limb appears to be associated with both short-term memory and executive function impairment, whereas musculoskeletal injuries without nerve damage showed no cognitive impairment. Therefore, it is important to monitor cognitive function following upper limb nerve injuries.

Analysis of Geometry Thinking Ability Reviewed from Student Learning Style

The research was conducted at one of the universities in Banten. Even semester, a sample of all students majoring in mathematics education, which totaled 88 students, was taken. The data collection approach involves learning style questionnaires, geometric thinking skills exams, and interviews, and the research method is qualitative. Qualitative data analysis follows a three-stage flow model: data reduction, data presentation and conclusion, and verification. The research problems are: 1) how students learn during online learning, and 2) how students' geometry thinking skills are reviewed from their learning style. The results of the study concluded that students more have auditorial learning style during online learning. Then based on the ability to think geometry, students are seen from the mastery of fundamental geometry skill indicators and reviewed from their learning style. Known students with visual learning styles master visual indicators and drawing but lack master verbal, logical, and applied indicators. Furthermore, students with an auditorial learning style show mastery of logic and applied indicators but lack mastering visual, verbal, and drawing indicators. Students with kinesthetic learning styles show mastery of drawing and applied indicators but lack mastering visual, verbal, and logic indicators.

Storytelling in videos: A novel way to teach qualitative research

This study investigates the impact of instructional materials and multimedia integration on student engagement, comprehension and learning preferences within Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) qualitative research course. Three key measures were examined: the effectiveness of instructional materials, the impact of video content on the learning experience, and the relationship between learning preferences and exposure to storytelling videos. Data was collected through surveys administered to students enrolled in a qualitative research course. Results from Measure 1 indicate a strong positive correlation between students’ perception of the effectiveness of storytelling cases and their ability to recall qualitative research approaches after viewing accompanying videos. A significant proportion of students reported increased engagement with course content, attributing it to the utilisation of storytelling cases. Measure 2 findings reveal that students who found watching videos meaningful for discussion boards and perceive videos as helpful in improving focus are more likely to rate viewing videos instead of reading research articles as high in value. In addition, Measure 3 demonstrates that students who have learned via storytelling videos more frequently in academic classes prior to this course are more likely to prefer visual or auditory learning and thus perceive offering a range of learning activities in online courses as important. These findings underscore the importance of innovative instructional approaches such as storytelling and multimedia integration in enhancing student learning experiences and outcomes in online programmes.

Effectiveness of Using Fun Minds Flash in Improving Vocabulary Retention Among Year 5 Remedial Pupils

Vocabulary retention is vital for learning a language and proficiency in English. This will enable effective recall and use in various contexts in which enhancing both productivity and receptiveness that are complimentary for speaking, writing, listening and reading. However, nowadays, it was found from the practicum insights that there were poor English vocabulary retention especially among remedial students that are known to require extra support for learning difficulties. The contributors’ factors were coming from focus difficulties, language proficiency problems and anxiety issues. Not only that, but traditional teachers also often overlook the diverse learning needs of these pupils. In this study, the factors of lack of interactive tools, anxiety management and multimedia integrations were analysed, and it highlighted the potential of 'Fun Mind Flash' as an interactive tool designed to enhance vocabulary retention through tactile and auditory learning experiences. It includes personalised and customised word cards with audio structures for pronunciation and contextual usage. The token reinforcement system was also used in this study to explore the innovative solutions to improve vocabulary retention among primary ESL remedial pupils. The methods used in this study were mixed approaches of quantitative and qualitative methods. As a result, based on quantitative findings, the post-test scores indicated the effectiveness of the interactive tools (Fun Mind Flash) and found to help increase the vocabulary knowledge and application of English. Qualitative findings found that observations and interviews discovered high levels of engagement, motivation and meaningful learning outcomes. Students were found to be more interested in their learning and able to cope with their anxiety during the sessions of learning. This study suggested further studies on long-term impact of Fun Mind Flash and as well comparing it with other interactive tools, the integrations of advanced technologies to adapt with the diverse cultural contexts.

Analysis of Students’ Errors in Solving Contextual Problems Based on the Learning Style

This research is descriptive using a qualitative approach, which has the aim of describing the errors that students have made when solving contextual problems. Error analysis was carried out using Newman's indicators and reviewed based on student learning styles. The research subjects of class VII MTs Miftahul Ulum were three students, the selection of subjects was based on filling out a learning style questionnaire. Data collection methods in this study were written tests, questionnaires, and interviews. Data analysis in this study is data reduction, presenting data, and drawing conclusions. Based on the results of the study, it was found that (i) students with visual learning style showed signs of error in process skills and in writing the final answer (ii) students with auditory learning style showed signs of error in process skills indicators and writing the final answer (iii) students with kinesthetic learning style showed signs of error in understanding indicators, process skills and writing the final answer. The factors that cause students to make mistakes are that students usually make mistakes for two reasons, namely they have minimal knowledge of the material and they rarely practice contextual problems or other problems.

Analysis of students' mathematical communication skills in terms of learning styles

The purpose of this research is to obtain a description of the mathematical communication skills in terms of the learning styles of Grade XI TKR 3 students at SMK Negeri 1 Tanara for the 2023-2024 academic year. This research is qualitative in nature. Six subjects were selected, representing each learning style, from Grade XI TKR 3 students at SMK Negeri 1 Tanara, Tanara District, Serang Regency. The data collection techniques used were observation, interviews, documentation, and tests based on the indicators of mathematical communication skills, namely: (1) the ability to express mathematical symbols through everyday events, (2) the ability to determine the solution set by relating real objects to mathematical ideas, (3) the ability to explain mathematical problems related to elimination, (4) the ability to analyze mathematical problems related to substitution, and (5) the ability to evaluate mathematical thinking and strategies used in problems according to the observed object. The results showed that (1) subjects with a visual learning style have good mathematical concept comprehension on indicators 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5; (2) subjects with an auditory learning style have good mathematical communication on indicators 1, 2, and 5, but performed poorly on indicators 3 and 4; and (3) subjects with a kinesthetic learning style have good mathematical communication skills on indicators 1 and 2, but performed poorly on indicators 3, 4, and 5.