Attapulgite Clay Research Articles

Microwave properties of drilling fluids

The application of electromagnetic (EM) techniques to well logging is initiated in an environment dominated by the properties of the drilling fluids. An impulse technique using nanosecond pulses is applied to a coaxial waveguide containing drilling fluids to measure the velocity (dielectric constant ε) and absorption (attenuation coefficient α) of EM impulses. It is the large difference in dielectric constants of water and oil which makes EM propagation techniques attractive for logging. Dielectric properties of some nondispersed drilling fluids (bentonite and attapulgite clays) are found to be largely dependent upon the volume of water present. Both bentonite and attapulgite clays exhibit the same range of dielectric constants (ε = 81 → 75) when the weight percent of clay is increased to 10 percent. In contrast, the microwave attenuations of these two clays are quite different, with that of the bentonite increasing at about 4 times the rate of the attapulgite suspensions. Microwave attenuation measured for a variety of commercial drilling fluids varies over a wide range, with the lignosulfonates the largest (91 dB/m) and oil inverts the smallest (3 dB/m). The oil inverts also have a small dielectric constant (ε = 3 → 6). Temperature dependence of the attenuation for these same drilling fluids is determined in the range from 23 °C to 45 °C to indicate their behavior under in situ conditions.

Stability of Parathion on Attapulgite as Affected by Structural and Hydration Changes

AbstractThe structure and hydration status of attapulgite clay after heating at elevated temperatures and the stability of parathion on these clays was studied. Using infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy it was found that the bound water was lost in two steps, at 250° and 450° with the first step being largely reversible. At 650°C the structure began to dissolve releasing significant amounts of Mg, and a decrease in aggregate porosity was noted. At 850°C an amorphous phase was formed bearing little resemblance to the original attapulgite. Parathion was stable on all of the preheated clays when kept at 25°C for 190 days. The reactions of parathion on the preheated clays was studied at 110°C Hydrolysis of parathion was found to be minimal. Isomerization was the main reaction occurring on the Ca-attapulgite, whereas on an organo-clay no isomerization was observed. A mechanism for the isomerization reaction is proposed which entails a distortion of the phosphate moiety of the pesticide by the oxygen of the ligand water resulting in the conformational changes necessary for the isomerization to take place. On the organo-clay such a conformation was not possible; hence no isomerization occurred.

The Effects of Various Dietary Clays and Fillers on the Performance of Broilers and Laying Hens

In Experiment 1, two broiler trials were conducted from 0 to 53 days of age to determine the effects of adding 2.5% or 5% dietary fillers or clays (sand, rice hulls, kaolin, sodium bentonite, and attapulgite clay) on performance and fecal moisture.No significant differences in body weight gain, gain:feed ratio, feed consumption, or feed passage time were noted between treatments and control groups. A significant reduction in fecal moisture was observed for birds fed diets with 2.5% rice hulls or 5% attapulgite.In two broiler trials (Experiment 2) four levels (0, 5, 7.5, and 10%) of attapulgite clay were fed from 3 5 to 49 days of age. No significant differences in body weight gain or feed consumption between attapulgite and control birds were found. The 7.5% and 10% levels of attapulgite significantly depressed growth as compared to birds on 5% added attapulgite diet. All attapulgite diets significantly decreased fecal moisture.In a third experiment the addition of 5% or 7.5% attapulgite to hen layer diets did not significantly affect egg production, egg shell thickness, or fecal moisture. However, feed efficiency was significantly improved by feeding 5% attapulgite.

The activity of environmental samples in a cell culture test for asbestos toxicity

The inhibition of colony-forming efficiency of cultured human embryonic intestine-derived epithelial (I-407) cells was utilized in order to assay the toxic potential of six coded samples of particulate matter provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The results of the assay indicated that the most toxic of the EPA samples tested “blindly” was amosite which was equal in toxicity to the amosite used, by chance, as a positive control. The toxicities of the particulates from drinking water were approximately 100-fold less than the amosite; of these, the order of toxicity of the samples was San Francisco > Seattle > Duluth. The samples of attapulgite clay and taconite tailings displayed approximately half the toxicity of the drinking water particulates. These results indicate that this assay provides a sensitive and accurate method for screening asbestos and asbestiform contamination for potential toxicity.

An investigation of the thermal energy storage capacity of Glauber's salt with respect to thermal cycling

Calorimetric measurements have been performed on mixtures of Glauber's salt and borax and Glauber's salt, borax and attapulgite clay (the last serves as a thickener) in order to compare the thermal energy storage capacity of the unthickened mixture to the thickened as a function of thermal cycling. The results show a significant improvement in performance of the thickened mixture over that of the Glauber's salt and borax mixture. However, the thickened mixture shows a decline in performance with thermal cycling; several hypotheses to rationalize the decline are presented, tested and discussed.

Compatibility and Phytotoxicity of Herbicide‐Fertilizer Combinations1

AbstractDuring the past decade herbicides and liquid fertilizers have been combined for joint application with increasing frequency. This practice has been labeled the “weed and feed” concept. It saves time and labor, reduces soil compaction, and reduces application expenses. Thus, the effect of compatability treatments on phytoxicity of mixture of 10 herbicides with 11 fertilizers were studied in the laboratory and greenhouse. The objective was to determine the feasibility of joint application of each herbicide with each liquid fertilizer selected. Herbicides were generally compatible with suspension‐grade fertilizers and maintained their phytotoxicity for 24 hours with agitation as determined by greenhouse bioassays. Of the clear liquid fertilizers, 11‐37‐0 was the most compatible with the 10 herbicides. Atrazine [2‐chloro‐4‐(ethylamino)‐6‐(isopropylamino)‐s‐triazine], chloramben [3‐amino‐2,5‐dichlorobenzoic acid], and propachlor [2‐chloro‐N‐isopropylacetanilide] were the herbicides most compatible with the liquid fertilizers. Chloramben remained dispersed for 24 hours without agitation in most of the fertilizers. In general, separation of the herbicide‐fertilizer mixtures occurred within 1 hour after initial mixing, without agitation. Agitation was essential for maintaining phytotoxicity of most herbicide‐fertilizer mixtures. COMPEX (alcohol sulfates) at 0.25% volume/weight (v/w) of spray solution and ATTAGEL 150 (attapulgite clay) at 0.75% weight/weight (w/w) of liquid fertilizer solution were the most effective compatibility treatments added to the herbicide‐fertilizer mixtures. COMPEX retarded the formation of precipitates in fluorodifen [p‐nitrophenol‐α,α,α‐trifluoro‐2‐nitro‐p‐tolyl ether] fertilizer mixtures. Use of a 2:1 water:herbicide (w/w) dilution aided in mixing wettable powder herbicides with liquid fertilizers. Addition of SURFACTANT WK (dodecyl ether of polyethylene glycol) increased compatibility of some wettable powder herbicide‐fertilizer mixtures. However, with adequate agitation nearly all herbicide‐fertilizer mixtures were compatible and herbicide phytotoxicity was maintained without the need for the addition of compatibility agents.

The electric double-layer structure of illite and attapulgite clays

The electric double-layer structure of illite and attapulgite clays

Zinc Sources and Methods of Application for Rice1

AbstractBecause of the relatively recent diagnosis of Zn deficiency in rice (Oryza sativa L.), the most effective sources of Zn and methods of application for flooded soils have not been established. In a greenhouse experiment, growth of rice on flooded Nolichucky sandy clay loam limed to pH 7.5 was similar with soil applications of ZnO, ZnSO4, and ZnEDTA. Uptake of Zn by immature plants was in the order: ZnO > ZnSO4 > ZnEDTA. Application of ZnSO4 to the flood water, the rice seed, or the soil resulted in comparable increases in dry matter production and Zn uptake.The adherence of Zn to rice roots dipped in Zn suspensions and the subsequent availability to the plant was studied in the laboratory and the greenhouse. Suspensions containing ZnO were more effective in supplying Zn than those prepared with ZnS. The presence of attapulgite clay in the suspensions increased adherence to roots but decreased Zn availability to the plant. Suspensions containing more than 5% Zn were not practical because of excessive viscosity. Response, however, to Zn adhering to seedling dipped in suspensions containing 1 and 5% Zn as ZnO was similar to that where ZnO was mixed with the soil to supply 4 ppm of Zn.

The glass transition temperature of filled polymers and its effect on their physical properties

AbstractThe glass transition temperature, dynamic shear moduli, and bulk viscosities of Phenoxy PKHH (a thermoplastic polymer made from bisphenol‐A and epichlorohydrin) filled with glass beads and Attapulgite clay were investigated. The glass temperature of the polymer increased with increasing filler concentration and with increasing specific surface area of the filler. The data were interpreted by assuming that interactions between filler particles and the polymer matrix reduce molecular mobility and flexibility of the polymer chains in the vicinity of the interfaces. From the measured moduli and the viscosities of the filled and unfilled materials, the modulus reinforcement ratio in the glassy state and the relative viscosity in the viscous state were obtained as functions of the filler type and concentration. The relative modulus for the glass bead composite system follows the Kerner equation, while the clay‐filled systems exhibit slightly greater reinforcement. The relative viscosities are strongly temperature dependent and do not follow conventional viscosity predictions for suspensions. It is suggested that the filler has a twofold effect on the viscosity of the composite materials; one is due to its mechanical presence and the other is due to modifications of part of the polymer matrix caused by interaction. Using the WLF equation to express all modifications of the matrix, one can isolate a purely mechanical contribution to the viscosity reinforcement. This mechanical part is approximately bounded by the theoretical predictions of Kerner,32 Mooney, 36 and Brodnyan,41 for suspension viscosities.

Stratigraphy and Paleoenvironment of the Phosphatic Miocene Strata of North Carolina

Foraminifera and Mollusca collected from the phosphatic Pungo River Formation and the overlying Yorktown Formation in eastern North Carolina were analyzed and interpreted for stratigraphic and environmental significance in order to determine optimum depositional sites for primary phosphorite. The Mollusca and benthonic foraminifera of the Pungo River Formation correlate with those of the Calvert Formation of Maryland, and the planktonic foraminifera in both of these formations correlate with the Globigerinatella insueta zone of Trinidad, postulated as late Aquitanian age. The paleoenvironment of the phosphorite deposition, interpreted primarily from the benthonic foraminifera, was of cool-temperate waters, ranging in depth from 100 to 200 m in the phosphatic beds to less than 70 m in the upper calcareous beds where phosphate is scarce. Phosphorite deposition occurred in an oceanic embayment located south of the Fort Monroe high in southern Virginia and north of a positive feature whose axis lies in the vicinity of New Bern, North Carolina. Cool-temperate waters in this area during Pungo River time indicate that circulation patterns of ocean currents and the resultant faunal provinces were not the same as those at present and later in the Miocene. In the Pungo River and its time equivalents of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, the presence of thick diatomaceous clay units, volcanic ash beds, shards, attapulgite clays, and other minerals probably derived from volcanic rocks, suggests a volcanic source somewhere off the coast during the Miocene. The Yorktown unconformably overlies the Pungo River Formation. The unconformity is marked by channels into the Pungo River, filled with phosphatic pebbles, vertebrate bones, and lower York-town molluscs and microfauna. The coarse-grained phosphatic material is derived from the underlying fine-grained primary phosphorite in the Pungo River and is abundant only in the lower part of the Yorktown Formation. Deposition of the lower part of the Yorktown occurred in waters about 100 m deep. The waters gradually became more shallow as deposition of the formation continued until depths of less than 15 m, and probable brackish conditions, were reached as the uppermost part of the formation was deposited. Temperature of the waters, cool-temperate during lower Yorktown deposition, became warm-temperate to subtropical in later Yorktown time. The faunal patterns suggest that circulation patterns reached their present state during late Yorktown time.

Study of the drying efficiency of isopropanol by rectification

The efficacies of attapulgite clay (ATC)-, titanium dioxide (TiO2)- and silica gel (SG)-supported cobalt–cerium–boron (Co–Ce–B) substances as catalysts were investigated for the alcoholysis and hydrolysis of sodium borohydride (NaBH4) in ethanol–water solutions. Ce served as a helpful co-catalyst among the prepared Co–Ce–B catalysts, and the catalytic activity decreased in the following sequence: TiO2-supported > ATC-supported > SG-supported > unsupported. The effects of Ce/(Co+Ce) molar ratio, ethanol concentration, reaction temperature, NaBH4 concentration and NaOH concentration on the hydrogen production rate were investigated. For the ATC-supported catalyst, when the Ce/(Co+Ce) molar ratio was 10%, the catalyst exhibited the best catalytic activity. Optimal NaBH4 concentration, NaOH concentration and ethanol concentration to promote hydrogen generation rate was around 8 wt.%, 15 wt.% and 30 wt.%, respectively. It can be found that the addition of ATC greatly improved the recycle ability of the catalysts in the multi-cycle tests. The surface morphology of the catalysts before and after the recycle tests was studied from SEM images. The compositions of the catalysts were determined by XRD and EDS analyses. The occurrence of NaB(OH)4 in the alcoholysis by-product provided pertinent indications of ethanol recovery after the tests. The value of activation energy in the hydrogen generation process in the presence of ATC-supported Co–Ce–B catalyst was calculated to be 29.51 kJ/mol. An overall kinetic equation was also proposed.

A Study on the Sea Water Mud

For the purpose of improving the properties of sea water mud, the effect of materials on the sea water mud was studied and conclusions were obtained as follows: (1) As the fundamental material used in sea water mud bentonite can be used instead of attapulgite clay. The filter loss of bentonite-sea water mud, especially at high temperature, is less than that of attapulgite-sea water mud. Therefore, for deep drilling bentonite-mud is superior to attapulgite-mud. (2) The cheap ferrochrome lignosulfonate made in Japan can be sused taking the place of expensive one which is made in foreign countries. (3) Because bentonite sea water mud das higher stability, this is far better than attapulgite-sea water mud for the drillingof high pressure water zones. (4) Diesel oil mixed in sea water mud with concentration of five per cents is very effective for decreasing filter loss. (5) For the purpose of increasing viscosity of sea water mud, the addition of CMC is better than that of bentonite.

The Rate of Leaching of Dieldrin from Attapulgite Clay Granules1

Formulations of 30/40 mesh attapulgite clay granules containing 10% dieldrin applied as a solution in zylene, a heavy aromatic hydrocarbon, or a non-hydrocarbon solvent (mixture of diethylene glycol and water) were leached with water to determine the role of solvents in affecting the tenacity of the insecticide. Weighed undried and dried samples were leached continuously for 32 days with samples being taken initially and at intervals of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 days. The dieldrin content of the leachate was determined with a bioassay procedure using Aedes aegypti (L.) larvae. The undried xylene samples allowed a much higher initial release of dieldrin than any other of the undried or dried solvents used. A large reduction in release of dieldrin resulted with all solvents between the first 200-ml. sample and the sample taken at the end of the first day. After the first 200-ml. sample there was very little difference in the ppm of dieldrin released by leaching with water, due either to solvent used or to the evaporation of the solvent after formulation.

Oxidizing Power of the Surface of Attapulgite Clay

AbstractIt has been demonstrated that ferric iron is the principal source of the oxidizing action of the surface of attapulgite clay. The extent of oxidizing action in a given time (the oxidizing power) has been determined as a function of the temperature of calcination of the clay in the range 100–900°C.The oxidizing power was measured with TiCl3 in aqueous acid medium by direct titration of the clay in situ and by titration of extracts of the clay. The dissolution of the metallic cations of the clay was also studied in the same medium. The results have been correlated with structural changes caused by the calcination of attapulgite.

The Effect of Temperature on Clay Minerals In Aqueous Suspension

Abstract Drilling muds are complex colloidal systems. In an effort to analyze the physical properties that affect their performance at high temperature, an investigation was made of the hydrothermal stability of the monoionic hydrogen, calcium and magnesium forms of montmorillonite and attapulgite. Samples were heated to 400F in a simple autoclave and analyzed for cation exchange capacity, c-axis X-ray diffraction spacing and pH factor vs sodium hydroxide titration dependence. Out of the six monoionic clay minerals tested, calcium montmorillonite and magnesium attapulgite showed the least base exchange capacities and were relatively unaffected to heat. It is concluded that, of the six clays studied, these two clays were the most suitable forms for use in drilling fluids. Introduction The drilling of deep wells is dependent upon the drilling mud, and problems frequently arise concerning the effect of mud temperature and prolonged heating. Drilling muds are complex colloidal systems. In an effort to analyze their behavior in deep, hot boreholes, it was thought desirable in this investigation to study suspension of pure, monoionic montmorillonite and attapulgite clays before and after hydrothermal heating. Chemically, clays are hydrated aluminum silicates, such as montmorillonites and attapulgites. The structure of montmorillonite is composed of units made up of two silica tetrahedral sheets with a central alumina octahedral sheet. Attapulgite consists of double silica chains running parallel to the c-axis with the chains linked together at their longitudinal edges. The apexes of the tetrahedrons in successive chains point in opposite directions. One of the most important characteristics of clay minerals is their property of sorbing certain anions and cations and retaining them in exchangeable state. The property of exchange capacity is measured in terms of milliequivalents (meq) per 100 gm of clay. The cation-exchange capacities are taken at pH 7 from titration curves which show the relation between pH and milliequivalents of added NaOH. The following are causes of cation exchange:broken bonds around the edges of the silica alumina units would give rise to unsatisfied charges, which would be balanced by adsorbed cations;substitution within the lattice structure of trivalent aluminum for quadrivalent silicon in the tetrahedral sheet and of ions of lower valence; andthe hydrogen of exposed hydroxyls may be replaced by a cation which would be exchangeable. The primary techniques employed to study the effects of hydrothermal treatment were titration curves and X-ray diffraction analyses. Titration curves were useful in characterizing the nature of the clay mineral surface and the stability of the various samples to attack by acid or alkali before and after hydrothermal treatment. X-ray diffraction analyses were used to determine changes in the nature and crystal structure of the minerals present and to determine the cations in exchange positions on the montmorillonite samples. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE PREPARATION OF SAMPLES Selected samples of Wyoming bentonite and attapulgite clay from mines along the Georgia and Florida border were purified by centrifugation to remove all particles larger than 2 microns. In preparing magnesium attapulgite, first a 1.00-normal solution of magnesium acetate was prepared. The pH of the solution was adjusted to 7.0 by adding magnesium oxide. One hundred grams of attapulgite clay were mixed in a blender for 30 minutes with the magnesium acetate solution. The attapulgite solution was left overnight, and then filtered in a Buchner funnel. The suspension was leached with further quantity of magnesium acetate solution and then washed with distilled water for 20 days, after which the filtrate was free from magnesium ions. SPEJ P. 216^

Maya Blue: Alternative Hypotheses

AbstractAlthough the stability of the pigment, Maya blue, indicates to Gettens that the blue colorant as well as the attapulgite clay base of the pigment is inorganic, the optical properties and thermal behavior of the pigment suggest the alternative hypothesis that Maya blue is a clay-organic complex with an organic colorant in an inorganic base of attapulgite clay.

A novel method for preparing small particulate radioactive sources of high intensity from attapulgite clay

A novel method of preparing small, particulate, radioactive sources of high intensity from attapulgite clay is described. Non-encapsulated sources of this type would probably be suitable for flow-type reaction systems for radiation synthesis. In such systems, maximum efficiency of the radiation could be achieved and combined heterogeneous catalysis-radiation from the same material could be utilized.

Cation-Exchange Equilibria in a Carboxylic Cation Exchanger and in Attapulgite Clay

Selectivity numbers for a synthetic cation exchanger of the carboxylic type (IRC-50) and the natural cation exchanger, attapulgite clay mineral, were determined for different pairs of cations. The results in IRC-50 for Na+-K+, Na+-Rb+, and Na+-Cs+ systems showed no marked selectivity. The resin phase was considered to act as a concentrated salt solution. Hence, differences in the selectivity numbers (K) were attributed to the differences in the activity coefficients in the concentrated resin-phase solution. In the alkaline-earth systems (Mg++-Ca++, Mg++-Sr++, and Mg++-Ba++) the resin showed more selectivity between its members than between those of the alkali series. The selectivity numbers were functions of the percentage of Mg in the resin. In the Mg++-Ca++ system, Mg++ appeared more strongly held at low percentages of Mg, whereas in the Mg++-Ba++ system, Ba++ appeared more strongly held at all percentages of Mg in the resin. These results were explained on the basis of formation of slightly dissociated complexes of the alkaline-earth metals with the carboxylic groups of the exchanger. The results in attapulgite clay for the Na+-K+, Na+-Rb+, and Na+-Cs+ systems showed marked selectivity. The selectivity numbers were functions of the percentage of Na in the clay. The differences in selectivity were greater in the Na+-Cs+ system than in the Na+-Rb+ system and, in the Na+-Rb+ system, greater than in the Na+-K+ system. The results were broadly understood on the basis of the bifunctional character of the clay. The differences in the selectivity numbers for the alkaline-earth metals in the clay (Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba) are small as compared with those of the alkali metals. In general, the resin behaved as a moderately strong electrolyte with respect to the alkali metals. It behaved like a weak electrolyte with respect to the alkaline-earth metals. Attapulgite clay behaved like a weak electrolyte with respect to both the alkali metals and alkaline-earth metals. The results of the selectivitynumber curves for the clay resembled those of a bifunctional cation exchanger and a high cross-linkage resin.

Exchange Equilibria in a Carboxylic Resin and in Attapulgite Clay

Exchange Equilibria in a Carboxylic Resin and in Attapulgite Clay

Lethality of Inert Dust Materials to Kalotermes minor Hagen and Their Role as Preventives in Structural Pest Control

Samples of 162 insecticide diluents and other finely divided inert materials were first screened in a pilot test in which drywood termites were placed in 1 cc. of the material in 100-ml. beakers, then in a test in which they were confined with blocks of wood that had been dusted at all air velocity of 1,400 feet per minute in a specially constructed wind tunnel. In the latter tests, the four outstanding groups of materials, in descending order of effectiveness, were silica gels, aerogels. or precipitates> montmorillonite days=attapulgite clays> diatomites. In tests made in attics of residences, blocks of wood were placed in a number of locations representing different distances and degrees of accessibility from the point of discharge of the dust. After the dust was applied the wood blocks were taken to the laboratory and termites were confined with them. These tests revealed a property of the sorptive dusts not evaluated in the pilot or wind-tunnel tests, namely, their bulk density. The lighter materials were more uniformly distributed throughout the attic and their superiority to the heavier materials increased with increasing distances from the point of discharge.