Secondary Educational Attainment Research Articles

Social determinants of health and hypertension screening among women in The Gambia: an evaluation of 2019-2020 demographic and health survey data.

Hypertension is a leading modifiable risk factor for morbidity and mortality among women in Sub-Saharan Africa. Social determinants of health (SDH) are associated with sex-based differences in access to preventative screenings globally. Little research has assessed the influence of SDH on screening for hypertension among women in The Gambia. The aim of this study was to identify SDH associated with the utilization of hypertension screening among women in The Gambia. Data was examined from the 2019-2020 Gambia Demographic and Health Survey. Weighted multivariate logistic was used to identify whether SDH were associated with hypertension screening. Among 4116 women, over one-fifth (21.1%) had not been screened for hypertension in their lifetime. In fully adjusted models, older age, rural residence, higher than secondary educational attainment, employment, identification with specific ethnic groups, richer wealth status, parity (1 or more), and antenatal care visits increased the likelihood of lifetime hypertension screening. Women who indicated that others made their healthcare decisions for them (partners or someone else) were significantly less likely to have been screened for hypertension in their lifetime than women who made their healthcare decisions alone (adjusted odds ratio = 0.552, 95% confidence interval = (0.384-0.794)). SDH influence access to screening for hypertension among women in The Gambia. Initiatives may need to address the role of SDH to improve access and uptake of hypertension screening.

Role of labor market dynamics in influencing global female labor force participation

PurposeThe global non-attainment of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5 indicates the issue of rising gender inequality. Educated women shying away from the labor force is worsening it. The labor market dynamics might shape the female labor force participation (FLFP). The present study recommends a policy framework by analyzing this dynamism across 125 countries over 1990–2020.Design/methodology/approachThe Two-step System Generalized Method of Moments is used to address endogeneity bias. Dynamism in policy environment is captured by relaxing the Ceteris Paribus condition in the empirical model.FindingsResults show that the moderation of labor market factors has increased with the attainment of Secondary and Tertiary Education. Results also highlight that these factors promote FLFP through prospective opportunities but also hinder female participation through employer’s discrimination despite educational attainment.Originality/valueStudies have examined the role of education on FLFP. However, prior research has not investigated the role of labor market factors in influencing the impact of education on FLFP. The consideration of these factors will help in addressing the global policy lacuna by recommending a policy framework for enhancing FLFP through internalization of the externalities exerted by the labor market factors, and thereby, help the countries attaining the SDG 5 objectives.

Free secondary education policy and education attainment

This paper investigates the impact of Ghana’s Universal fee-free secondary education policy (FreeSHS) on educational attainment (completion rates). The policy was introduced in the school year 2017/2018, allowing every child to pursue secondary education irrespective of their background. We emphasize the educational outcomes of schoolgirls as they are shown to be at a greater disadvantage when accessing higher education in Ghana. Given the universality of the policy, we estimate a Difference-in-Differences model using variations in the treatment intensity across districts. The treatment and comparison groups are thus defined based on the differences in the uptake rate (changes in the uptake of education due to a price change). The paper draws from a comprehensive panel dataset capturing the demand and supply factors to education across 261 districts in Ghana. The empirical findings suggest that schoolgirls’ completion rate increased by 14 percentage points in high uptake districts, whereas the reform impact is estimated at 14.9 percentage points overall (for boys and girls). In effect, the absorption of education costs by the state serves as a critical incentive for cost-constrained households and an efficient measure for correcting market failures related to access and completion of secondary education for girls.

College and Career Ready: How Well Does 8th Grade MAP Performance Predict Secondary Educational Attainment?

College and Career Ready: How Well Does 8th Grade MAP Performance Predict Secondary Educational Attainment?

Predictors of metabolic syndrome and its components in patients with type 2 diabetes: A cross-sectional study in the Ho municipality, Ghana

BackgroundMetabolic syndrome refers to a group of risk factors that individually or synergistically increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. The predictors of metabolic syndrome are thought to vary between populations and ethnicities. Hence, this study aimed to investigate the factors predicting metabolic syndrome and its components among patients with type 2 diabetes in the Ho municipality. MethodsA hospital-based cross-sectional study was designed to include 197 patients with type 2 diabetes at the Ho Municipal Hospital. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to obtain data on demography and lifestyle variables. Anthropometric, haemodynamic, and biochemical parameters were measured. Metabolic syndrome was defined according to the harmonised criteria. Renal function was evaluated based on the Chronic Kidney Disease-Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI)] and the evidence of proteinuria. Chi-square test and logistic regression analyses were performed to determine the predictors of metabolic syndrome and its components. ResultsOverall, the prevalence of metabolic syndrome was 59.90 %. Females had higher odds of metabolic syndrome [OR: 2.64, 95 % CI: 1.48–4.71; p = 0.001], abdominal obesity [OR: 11.49, 95 % CI: 5.18–25.49, p < 0.001], and low HDL-C levels [OR: 17.67, 95 % CI: 4.73–65.99, p < 0.001]. Having a family history of diabetes increased the risk of metabolic syndrome [OR: 1.94, 95 % CI: 1.09–3.54, p = 0.023] and abdominal obesity [OR: 2.60, 95 % CI: 1.25–5.42, p = 0.011]. Having diabetes for 5 years or more was associated with uncontrolled FBG [OR: 4.75, 95 % CI: 1.25–17.98, p = 0.022] and low HDL-C levels [OR: 4.52, 95 % CI: 1.64–12.45, p = 0.004]. Attainment of secondary education increased the risk of abdominal obesity [OR: 5.73, 95 % CI: 1.46 – 22.49, p = 0.012], while the attainment of tertiary education increased the risk of low HDL-C [OR: 4.20, 95 % CI: 1.09 – 16.24, p = 0.038]. Physical inactivity was associated with metabolic syndrome [OR: 2.19, 95 % CI: 1.12 – 4.28, p = 0.022]. Being older than 50 years had a two-fold increased risk of elevated BP [OR: 2.53, 95 % CI: 1.36–4.69, p = 0.003]. However, females were about 56 % unlikely to be associated with elevated BP [OR: 0.44, 95 % CI: 0.23–0.84, p = 0.013]. ConclusionThe female gender, family history of diabetes, and longer duration of diabetes as well as attainment of secondary and tertiary level education and physical inactivity were significant predictors of metabolic syndrome and its components in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Prevalence and predictors of cervical cancer screening among HIV-positive women in rural western Uganda: insights from the health-belief model

BackgroundWomen living with HIV are at increased risk of developing cervical cancer (CC). Screening for cancer is an important preventive strategy for the early detection of precancerous lesions and its management. There has been inadequate evidence on cervical cancer screening (CCS) practices among HIV-positive women in rural western Uganda. This study aimed to assess the prevalence and predictors of CCS among HIV-positive women, as well as knowledge and practices regarding cervical cancer screening.MethodsA cross-sectional, analytical study was conducted among HIV-positive women attending HIV care facilities located in rural settings of western Uganda. A validated and interview-based data collection form was used to capture statistics regarding demographics, HIV care, obstetric profile, health belief constructs, and knowledge and history of CCS from the participants. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to correlate women’s characteristics and health beliefs toward CCS practices.ResultsThe prevalence of CCS among HIV-positive women was found to be 39.1% (95%CI: 14.0–71.7). A multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that post-secondary education attainment (AOR = 3.21; 95%CI = 2.12–7.28), four years or more lapsing after being diagnosed as HIV-positive (AOR = 2.87; 95%CI = 1.34–6.13), having more than one child (AOR = 1.87; 95%CI = 1.04–3.35), antenatal care attendance (AOR = 1.74; 95%CI = 1.02–3.43), post-natal care attendance (AOR = 3.75; 95%CI = 1.68–5.89), and having good knowledge regarding CC (AOR = 1.26; 95%CI = 1.98–3.02) were positively associated with adherence to CCS among HIV-positive women in western Uganda. Health Belief Model (HBM) constructs like the perceived risk of developing CC (AOR = 1.82; 95%CI = 1.16–2.01), worries about developing CC (AOR = 5.01; 95%CI = 4.26–8.32), believing that CC leads to death (AOR = 2.56; 95%CI = 1.64–3.56), that screening assists in early identification (AOR = 2.12; 95%CI = 1.84–3.74) and treatment (AOR = 4.63; 95%CI = 2.78–6.43) of precancerous lesions, reducing the risk of mortality (AOR = 1.84; 95%CI = 1.12–2.75), and the reassurance provided by negative test results (AOR = 2.08; 95%CI = 1.33–4.22) were positively associated with adhering to CCS. A female doctor performing the screening (AOR = 2.02; 95%CI = 1.57–3.98) as well as offering a free screening service (AOR = 3.23; 95%CI = 1.99–4.38) were significantly associated with CCS. Meanwhile, screening being painful (AOR = 0.28; 95%CI = 0.12–0.45), expensive (AOR = 0.36; 95%CI = 0.24–0.53), time-consuming (AOR = 0.30; 95%CI = 0.19–0.41), embarrassing (AOR = 0.02; 95%CI = 0.01–0.06), and the fear of positive results (AOR = 0.04; 95%CI = 0.02–0.10) were found to have a significant negative association with adhering to CCS.ConclusionsOnly one-third of HIV-positive women had undergone CCS. Variables including secondary education attainment, four years or more lapsing after being diagnosed as HIV-positive, having more than one child, antenatal care attendance, post-natal care attendance, and knowledge about CC were positively associated with CCS adherence. Educational programs should be geared towards the risk of CC, severity of cases, benefits of screening, and reducing barriers associated with screening, which can significantly improve cervical CCS among HIV-positive women. The study proposes the incorporation of free screening services and the inclusion of trained female staff in CC prevention policies to improve CCS.

Prevalence of subjective cognitive decline and its association with physical health problems among urban community dwelling elderly population in South India

AbstractBackgroundThe incidence of cognitive disorders is increasing in India1. Stage II of the preclinical Alzheimer’s Disease (PCAD) is characterised by subjective complaints of decline in cognition, termed Subjective Cognitive Decline (SCD)2,3. Objective assessments of cognition is normal in that stage. There are no studies from India that looked at SCD in the community. Our study aims to look at the prevalence of SCD in an urban dwelling elderly population and its correlates.Method418 individuals above the age of 60 were screened using Subjective Memory Complains Questionnaire (SMCQ) and also screened for medical and psychiatric illness. Objective measurement of cognitive functions was done using MOCA.Results372(92.5%) had reported at least 1 subjective complaint using the participant version of the Subjective Memory Complaint Questionnaire(SMCQ). Among those without any reported subjective complaints,17(56.6%) had objective cognitive impairment on assessments. In total,13 (3.49%) had normal cognition and 179(48.12%) of the evaluated subjects had pre‐MCI SCD. There is no statistically significant association between physical health parameters of Diabetes mellitus and Hypertension or any sociodemographic variables except educational attainment. The mean subjective complaints score is lesser and means objective cognition scores are higher in those with higher secondary school educational attainment (p value&lt;0.001) when compared to those who don’t.ConclusionsThere is significant morbidity of cognitive decline in the elderly. Subjective memory complaints are present in most of the elderly(92.5%) and 179(48.12%) had pre‐MCI SCD. SCD is a complex condition that requires further longitudinal studies with biomarker assessment to understand the mechanism of progression to AD.

Prevalence and factors associated with hypertension among adolescents in Sudan: a cross-sectional school-based study

ObjectivesThere is an increasing rate of elevated blood pressure, or hypertension, in children and adolescents worldwide, including Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Only a few data on adolescent hypertension in SSA, including...

Youth educational mobility and the rural family in China

Urban-rural economic opportunity gaps drive rural youth to seek economic stability by migrating away from home and family. The links between educational attainment and economic outcomes for rural youth are well studied in China and elsewhere, but the implications of educational mobility for rural family relationships remain less understood. Extending tenets of second demographic transition theory, we posit that education sets the stage for “individualization:” geographic mobility for urban work distant from rural family networks. Educational mobility may thus set conditions for upending traditional family co-residence patterns, direct-support relationships, and family-gender attitudes. In this paper, we consider first whether educational advancement is associated with urban economic mobility for rural youth in young adulthood, and then ask whether education is linked to disruption of rural family relations. Specifically, using the case of children growing up in rural northwest China, we estimate relationships between secondary and tertiary educational attainment and (1) economic stability, (2) intergenerational geographic separation and material exchange, and (3) traditional family and gender role attitudes, after adjusting for potential confounders. Results show that for both men and women, education is associated with greater economic stability in young adulthood, across several measures, and with an erosion of adherence to traditional family and gender attitudes. Moreover, for men, education correlates to less family proximity and more material exchange.

Educational attainment in survivors of childhood cancer in Denmark, Finland, and Sweden.

Survivors of childhood cancer may face difficulties at school. We investigated whether childhood cancer affects attainment of upper secondary education, in a register-based cohort study from Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, where we limit bias from selection and participation. From the national cancer registers, we identified all long-term survivors of childhood cancer diagnosed aged 0-14 years in 1971-2005 (n = 7629), compared them to matched population comparisons (n = 35,411) and siblings (n = 6114), using odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Overall, 6127 survivors (80%) had attained upper secondary education by age 25, compared to 84% among comparison groups. Elevated OR for not attaining this level were mainly confined to survivors of central nervous system (CNS) tumours (ORSurv_PopComp2.05, 95%CI: 1.83-2.29). Other risk groups were survivors who had spent more time in hospital around cancer diagnosis and those who had hospital contacts in early adulthood, particularly psychiatric. Survivors of all cancer types were less likely to have attained upper secondary education without delay. Although survivors of childhood cancer experienced delays in their education, many had caught up by age 25. Except for survivors of CNS tumours, survivors attained upper secondary education to almost the same extent as their peers.

PISA reading achievement, literacy motivation, and school burnout predicting Adolescents' educational track and educational attainment

In this four-year longitudinal study, we examined how reading comprehension, as assessed with PISA reading achievement, literacy motivation, and school burnout symptoms at the end of comprehensive school predict the choice of educational track (academic or vocational) and educational attainment in upper secondary education. The sample consisted of 1351 Finnish students whose PISA reading achievement, self-concept of ability in literacy, task value in literacy, and symptoms of school burnout (cynicism and exhaustion) were assessed at the end of comprehensive school. Information concerning their educational track during the first year of upper secondary education was derived from self-reports and information concerning the completion of upper secondary education were collected from school registers. The results indicated that PISA reading achievement, self-concept of ability in literacy, cynicism, and exhaustion were unique determinants of educational track choice after comprehensive school. The results suggest that there is a need, in comprehensive schools, to consider not only the development of basic skills but also literacy motivation and school well-being, as these all can have a long-term impact on students' educational paths. Educational relevance statementThe analyses of the present data showed relatively modest predictive value on the part of PISA performance for adolescents' later educational outcomes. The results of the present longitudinal study suggested that PISA reading score does not predict the completion of upper secondary education but that it is a unique predictor of educational choice after comprehensive school over and above other predictors in the model, suggesting that the explanation for the impact of PISA reading on educational track choice is not due to gender, parental socioeconomic status, or motivational or well-being factors. In addition to the PISA reading test score, a high self-concept in literacy and also symptoms of exhaustion increased the likelihood of attending general upper secondary school, whereas symptoms of cynicism increased the likelihood of attending vocational school. The results suggest that there is a need, in comprehensive schools, to consider not only the development of basic skills but also literacy motivation and school well-being, as these all can have a long-term impact on students' educational paths.

School segregation, student achievement, and educational attainment in Hungary

Using large-scale administrative data from Hungary, we examine the effects of attending a high-poverty school in Grade 8 on academic achievement and later educational attainment, using a matching approach. We find that attending a high-poverty school is negatively associated with reading scores and secondary education attainment, while there is no significant association with math scores. Estimates are negative in the case of higher education enrollment, but their statistical significance depends on model specification. We find suggestive evidence that attending a high-poverty school has a large direct negative effect on educational attainment, over and above the indirect effect through lower test scores. This suggests that the negative effect of high-poverty schools on students’ noncognitive skills and later educational choices can be as important as the effect on achievement.

Analysis of Sex-Specific Gene-by-Cohort and Genetic Correlation-by-Cohort Interaction in Educational and Reproductive Outcomes Using the UK Biobank Data.

Synthesizing prior gene-by-cohort (G×C) interaction studies, we theorize that changes in genetic effects by social conditions depend on the level of resource constraints, the distribution and use of resources, structural constraints, and constraints on individual choice. Motivated by the theory, we explored several sex-specific G×C trends across a set of outcomes using 30 birth cohorts of UK Biobank data (N = 400,000). We find that genetic coefficients on years of schooling and secondary educational attainment substantially decrease, but genetic coefficients on college attainments only moderately increase. On the other hand, genetic coefficients for education ranks are stable. Genetic coefficients on reproductive behavior increase for younger cohorts. Additional genetic-correlation-by-cohort analysis shows shifting genetic correlations between education and reproductive behavior. Our results suggest that the G×C patterns are highly heterogenous and that social and genetic factors jointly shape the diversity of human phenotypes.

Parental unemployment and children's educational attainment: How big is the role of aspirations?

Children exposed to parental unemployment have been found to lag behind in school, but research has struggled to pin down the underlying explanation. One hypothesis is that parental unemployment may dampen children's aspirations to do well and go far in school. Yet, few studies on parental unemployment have relied on actual measures of children's aspirations or devised a formal analysis of this mechanism. Using the UK Household Longitudinal Study (Waves 1-12, N=1067), I investigate the role of educational aspirations in children's General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) attainment. I compare adolescents exposed to parental unemployment before or only after the typical age at which GCSE exams are taken. In adjusted models, children exposed to parental unemployment before their GCSEs are around 6 percentage points less likely to attain any GCSE qualification by age 17. On average, children have high educational aspirations, although intentions to enrol in college or university are relatively lower among children exposed to an early spell of parental unemployment. Nevertheless, a hypothetical intervention setting these aspirations to the same level for all children only accounts for a modest portion of the educational penalty tied to an early spell of parental unemployment. Several sensitivity and robustness tests support this conclusion. This note seeks to stimulate more research on the mechanisms underpinning the intergenerational effects of unemployment. Findings cast doubts on the idea that children's aspirations, the target of broader policy discourse and interventions, are a crucial part of the equation.

How does public policy impact trafficking victimization?: An exact matching study in the EU

Trafficking in human beings (THB) is a widespread, transnational issue in the European Union (EU). Member states act as source, transit, and destination countries for intra-EU trafficking, in addition to being a major destination region for external THB victims. This study presents a new dataset of THB victims observed in each EU member state per year and by type of exploitation going back as far as 2001 and employs exact matching methods to test the link between different prostitution policies and Roma secondary education attainment rates on observed THB victimization. The paper also builds off previous literature to compare how different legal prostitution models and THB supply factors are expected to influence various types of THB. The results indicate that legalized prostitution and lower educational attainment among the Roma community increase observed THB victimization, especially THB for the purpose of sexual exploitation. The paper does not find that the Swedish model significantly increases or decreases observed THB victimization. In demonstrating how matching methods can be utilized to uncover policy patterns in THB outcomes, this study provides a blueprint for how other hidden phenomena, such as corruption or migration, can be robustly and empirically tested.

Intergenerational transmission of educational disadvantage: Education progression of children of care leavers compared to a general population sample

AbstractThere is persistent evidence showing that care leavers tend to have lower educational outcomes compared to their peers. There is, however, less knowledge of whether this educational disadvantage transfers to the second generation. This study adopts a developmental contextual life‐course approach to examine: (a) the extent of educational inequality of children of care leavers from school entry to public examinations at age 16; (b) the relative role of different psychosocial family resources as predictors of educational attainment; and (c) the role of early school readiness assessments as predictors of later educational attainment. Drawing on data collected from families living in England at the first sweep of the nationally representative UK Millennium Cohort Study (MCS) (n = 11,514), the findings suggest intergenerational transmission of educational disadvantage among children of care leavers (n = 287), which is manifest in a direct assessment of school readiness (age 3), at the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) (age 5) and in General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) attainment (age 16). However, once inequalities in family socio‐economic background or area deprivation and housing are controlled for, children of care leavers perform comparably in their educational progression to those whose mothers had no experience of being in care (n = 11,227). Moreover, the findings highlight the significance of early school readiness assessments in predicting later educational attainment for the whole sample. Findings are discussed regarding their implications for policy, in particular the need to address educational inequality for children in care, area allocation and housing that is offered to care leavers, and the general importance of early interventions.

Associations between exposure to blue spaces and natural and cause-specific mortality in Greece: An ecological study.

A growing body of evidence suggests that exposure to natural environments, such as green space, may have a beneficial role in health. However, there is limited evidence regarding the effects of exposure to blue spaces and mortality. We investigated the association of exposure to blue spaces with natural and cause-specific mortality in Greece using an ecological study design METHODS: Mortality and socioeconomic data were obtained from 1,035 municipal units (MUs) from the 2011 census data. To define exposure to "blue" we used a rate of the land cover categories related to blue space from the COoRdination and INformation on the Environmental (CORINE) 2012 map per 10,000 persons in the municipal unit. We further assessed the exposure to blue space in the MUs that are located in the coastline of Greece using the distance to the coast as a proxy for proximity to blue space. the Annual PM2.5, NO2, BC and O3 concentrations for 2010 were predicted by land use regression models while the normalized difference vegetation index was used to assess greenness. We applied single and two exposure Poisson regression models accounting for spatial autocorrelation and adjusting for unemployment and lung cancer mortality rates, percentages of the population aged 25-64 with upper secondary or tertiary education attainment and of those born in Greece, and urbanicity. The analysis was conducted for the whole country and separately by varying geographical definitions. An interquartile range (IQR) increase of blue space per 10,000 persons was associated with decreased risk in natural mortality (Relative Risk (RR): 0.98 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.98, 0.99), as well as in mortality due to cardiovascular causes, respiratory causes and diseases of the nervous system 0.98 (95% CI: 0.97, 0.99); 0.97 (95% CI: 0.95, 0.99); 0.94 (95% CI: 0.88, 1.00) respectively). We estimated protective associations for ischemic heart disease (IHD) mortality (RR=0.98, 95% CI: 0.97, 1.00 per IQR); COPD mortality (RR=0.97, 95% CI: 0.93, 1.00 per IQR) and mortality from cerebrovascular disease (RR=0.97 (95% CI: 0.96, 0.99 per IQR). We estimated protective associations for the distance from the coast and mortality from the diseases of the nervous system (RR=0.75, 95% CI: 0.61, 0.92, ≤1km from the coast versus >1km). Our results were stronger for inhabitants of the islands, the coastline and in the rural areas of Greece while the estimates were robust to co-exposure adjustment. We estimated statistically significant protective effects of exposure to blue space on mortality from natural, cardiovascular and respiratory causes, diseases of the nervous system, cerebrovascular and ischemic heart disease for in Greece with higher estimates in the coastline and the islands. Further research is needed to elaborate our findings.

Is government spending in the education and health sector necessary for human capital development?

This study intends to examine the impact of current health expenditure, domestic government health expenditure, government education expenditure, social protection, population growth, and foreign direct investment (FDI) on human capital formation in the context of Pakistan. This study utilized skill and health to measure human capital. The study utilized annual data for the period of 1990–2020 and data has been extracted from World Development Indicators (WDI) and World Bank. The study utilized auto-regressive distributed lag (ARDL) bound test to examine long-run co-integration among defined variables. Furthermore, the study employed ARDL Model to obtain long-run and short-run empirical estimates for modeled variables. The results of this study indicated that current health expenditure (CHE), domestic government health expenditure (DGHE), government education expenditures (GEE), foreign direct expenditure (FDI), and social protection program (SP) have a positive and significant association with human capital in term of primary, secondary, and tertiary education attainment and life expectancy at birth. Moreover, domestic government spending on health and education, and social protection program significantly decreases child mortality in Pakistan. Furthermore, this study found that population growth has a negative and significant association with primary attainment. The findings of this study suggest that the Government of Pakistan should allocate more of its budget for health, education, and social protection programs to uplift its human capital.

Determinants of academic achievement: How parents and teachers influence high school students’ performance

This study explores the contribution of various drivers of attainment in secondary education in Portugal. We propose a model explaining the influence of students, teachers, and parents' traits on high school achievement, measured by the self-reported Math and Portuguese final grades of 220 students. Using PLS-SEM, we show that previous achievement predicts current achievement in both subjects; however, noteworthy differences were found. Portuguese grades are significantly better for students whose parents have post-secondary education and communicate higher expectations about their offspring's school careers. At the same time, Math achievement is influenced by students' perception of teachers' involvement but not by parents' expectations or education. Previous retention and receiving educational allowance impair Math achievement, but not Portuguese. Results and implications are discussed.

Does Inequality in Landownership Contribute To Inequality in Education Attainment? Empirical Evidence From Kenya

An inverse relationship is found across countries between unequal landownership and education attainment. Since Kenya exhibits inequalities in landownership and education attainment across and within counties, households and gender, is there any relationship between the observed inequalities? Using data from the Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey and the Kenya Population and Housing Census, the study applies fractional IV and IV-Two Stage Least Squares (2SLS) regression methods to examine whether the Gini of landownership influences the Gini of education attainment across counties, and the determinants of education attainment in Kenya. The evidence generated does not support the strong relationship between landownership inequality and inequality in education previously documented. Government financing of free education, coupled with bursaries, muffle the relationship. Inequality in education attainment across counties is likely due to county disparities in household size, income, urbanization rate, and participation in highlevel public employment. An increase in average per capita household expenditure, or urban population, also reduce the probability of inequality in primary as well as secondary education attainment in a county. Government financing of education and policies that promote urbanization, enhance quality of families, and increase highlevel participation in government reduce any effect that landownership inequality could have on education attainment.&#x0D; JEL Classification: I24; C21; C26; D13; Q15; R20.