Atlantic Sea Cucumber Research Articles

Application of response surface methodology and artificial neural network to optimize the extraction of saponins and polyphenols from North Atlantic sea cucumber

Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) were employed to optimize saponin extraction from North Atlantic Sea cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa). Ultrasonication-assisted ethanol-based extractions were used in a second-order polynomial and 3n full factorial RSM interconnected with neural design ANN model. A 3-10-2 neural network architecture was constructed to predict the relationship between the independent variables and bioactive compounds adequately. The extracts with the highest frondoside A yield were characterized for different triterpene glycosides (saponins) by high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). A total of ten saponins were detected and tentatively identified including fallaxoside, frondoside, cucumarioside, cercodemasoide, colochiroside, and lefevreioside, with two unknown saponins. Six of the saponins were detected in C. frondosa extracts for the first time. The extract of body walls have a higher concentration of frondoside A (0.73 mg/g DW) than internal organs and tentacles (flowers or aquapharyngeal bulb). The optimized extracts exhibit a significantly higher concentration of polyphenols and saponins when compared with extracts prepared from conventional methods. The ANN model demonstrated a low p and high f values to indicate a perfect good fit for RSM model. The advanced knowledge of saponins of C. frondosa can contribute to the development of novel functional foods and ingredients from C. frondosa and their processing byproducts.

Aquaculture of emerging species in North-Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea: a systematic review on sea cucumber farming and potential development

Sea cucumbers are considered a traditional food delicacy in Asian countries. In last decades high market demand, uncontrolled exploitation and inadequate management have led to stock overexploitation, driving commercial interest in new target species and new areas. In recent years, Mediterranean and North-East Atlantic sea cucumbers have become fishing targets, and, due to overfishing, a significant decline of wild populations have been observed, with detrimental effects on benthic communities and ecosystems. Indeed, in addition to being an important economic resource, sea cucumbers play a key ecological role in benthic dynamics where they are involved as ecosystem engineers in the processing of organic matter in the detrital food web pathway. In this context, aquaculture can play a crucial role in supporting the conservation of natural stocks by reducing harvesting pressure on wild populations and enabling restoration programmes for depleted stocks. Commercial sea cucumber farming is already an established reality in the Indo-Pacific region, where it has become one of the most profitable sectors of aquaculture production. In Europe, on the other hand, sea cucumber aquaculture is still an emerging sector, whose development is hampered by poor and fragmented information on the farming requirements of native species. In this context, this systematic review was carried out with the aim of providing a comprehensive summary of the state of the art of farming practices of the European sea cucumbers considered as a target of commercial fisheries. A total of 34 original articles were included in this review, after title, abstract and full-text screening. The results highlighted a sharp increase in the number of studies over the last six years. Portugal, Turkey and Italy are the countries where most research has been carried out. Among the selected species, Holothuria tubulosa was the most studied, while only one article was found on Parastichopus regalis. The main aims of this review were i) to gather all available literature on the farming practices of North-East Atlantic and Mediterranean sea cucumber species, ii) to outline the most common farming practices, iii) to identify gaps and future directions in this emerging aquaculture sector.

Antioxidant and ACE-Inhibitory Activity of Protein Hydrolysates Produced from Atlantic Sea Cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa).

Atlantic sea cucumber is a benthic marine echinoderm found in Northwest Atlantic waters and is harvested mainly for its body wall. The body wall, along with internal organs and aquaphyrangeal bulb/flower, is a rich source of proteins, where the latter parts are often considered as processing discards. The objective of this research was to produce protein hydrolysates from sea cucumber tissues (body wall, flower, and internal organs) with bioactive properties associated with antioxidants, DNA and LDL cholesterol oxidation inhibition, and angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory effects. The protein hydrolysates were prepared using food-grade commercial enzymes, namely Alcalase, Corolase, and Flavourzyme, individually and in combination, and found that the combination of enzymes exhibited stronger antioxidant potential than the individual enzymes, as well as their untreated counterparts. Similar trends were also observed for the DNA and LDL cholesterol oxidation inhibition and ACE-inhibitory properties of sea cucumber protein hydrolysates, mainly those that were prepared from the flower. Thus, the findings of this study revealed potential applications of sea cucumber-derived protein hydrolysates in functional foods, nutraceuticals, and dietary supplements, as well as natural therapeutics.

Saponins of North Atlantic Sea Cucumber: Chemistry, Health Benefits, and Future Prospectives

Frondosides are the major saponins (triterpene glycosides) of the North Atlantic sea cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa). Frondosides possess amphiphilic characteristics due to the presence of various hydrophilic sugar moieties and hydrophobic genin (sapogenin). Saponins are abundant in holothurians, including in sea cucumbers that are widely distributed across the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean. Over 300 triterpene glycosides have been isolated, identified, and categorized from many species of sea cucumbers. Furthermore, specific saponins from sea cucumbers are broadly classified on the basis of the fron-dosides that have been widely studied. Recent studies have shown that frondoside-containing extracts from C. frondosa exhibit anticancer, anti-obesity, anti-hyperuricemic, anticoagulant, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiangiogenic, antithrombotic, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and immunomodulatory activities. However, the exact mechanism(s) of action of biological activities of frondosides is not clearly understood. The function of some frondosides as chemical defense molecules need to be understood. Therefore, this review discusses the different frondosides of C. frondosa and their potential therapeutic activities in relation to the postulated mechanism(s) of action. In addition, recent advances in emerging extraction techniques of frondosides and other saponins and future perspectives are discussed.

Functional and physiochemical properties of protein isolates from different body parts of North Atlantic sea cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa)

Sea cucumbers are a good source of proteins and essential amino acids. In this study, protein isolates were recovered from North Atlantic sea cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa) body wall (BWI) and processing by-products, including flower (FLI) and internal organs (INI), using the pH-shift method. Functional properties of protein isolates were investigated and compared with those of soy protein isolates (SPI). All protein isolates exhibited a typical U-shaped solubility curve showing a minimum solubility at their isoelectric points. Furthermore, emulsification and foaming properties of the sea cucumber protein isolates were also pH-dependent and corresponded with their solubility. The highest water holding capacity was observed in FLI, whereas SPI showed the lowest oil holding capacity among all tested protein isolates. Sea cucumber protein isolates exhibited significantly higher (p < 0.05) surface hydrophobicity and relatively lower sulfhydryl (SH) group and disulfide (SS) bonds compared to SPI. In addition, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra of sea cucumber protein isolates exhibited unique absorption peaks related to their secondary structures. Amino acid profiles of sea cucumber protein isolates revealed that they could be used as rich and complete sources of essential amino acids. These findings suggest that Atlantic sea cucumber protein isolates could serve as functional food ingredients.

Phenolic profiles of Atlantic sea cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa) tentacles and their biological properties

Sea cucumber tentacles (aquapharyngeal bulb) are a rich source of biologically active compounds, including phenolics, however they are mainly discarded as processing waste. This study evaluated free, esterified, and insoluble-bound phenolics of Atlantic sea cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa) tentacles and their antioxidant activity for the first time. Biological properties such as inhibitory activities against α-glucosidase, tyrosinase, and the formation of AGEs as well as LDL-cholesterol and DNA oxidation were investigated. The antioxidant activity of the phenolic extracts was also evaluated in a fish model system. In the UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS analysis, 31 phenolic compounds, mainly phenolic acids and flavonoids, were identified and quantified. Among them, eight compounds were detected for the first time in any species of sea cucumber. The free phenolic fraction was the major form of phenolics, mainly protocatechuic acid, p-coumaric acid, gallic acid, ellagic acid, catechin, and quercetin, exhibiting strong antioxidant and biological activities. Fresh Atlantic salmon treated with sea cucumber phenolics delayed lipid oxidation as measured by the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) assay. Therefore, Atlantic sea cucumber tentacles may serve as a viable source of functional food ingredients with protective antioxidant properties.

Effect of High-Pressure Processing (HPP) on Phenolics of North Atlantic Sea Cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa).

Sea cucumber contains a wide range of bioactive compounds, including phenolics. This study investigated the free, esterified, and insoluble-bound phenolics of sea cucumber body wall as affected by high-pressure processing (HPP) pretreatment. Sea cucumber body wall was subjected to HPP (200, 400, and 600 MPa for 5, 10, and 15 min), followed by the extraction of phenolics. The contents of total phenolics and antioxidant activity were monitored. Compared to untreated samples, those treated with HPP exhibited significantly higher total phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidant activities. Treatment of 600 MPa for 10 min offered the optimal results. The highest amount of phenolics was observed in the free phenolic fraction, followed by esterified and insoluble-bound phenolic fractions. Moreover, phenolic extracts showed inhibitory effects against cupric ion-induced low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol oxidation, peroxyl and hydroxyl radical-induced DNA scission, α-glucosidase activity, and formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs). Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with a quadrupole time of fight and mass spectrometer (UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS) identified 20 phenolic compounds, mainly phenolic acids and flavonoids, from the body wall of this species for the first time. Thus, sea cucumber may lead to the production of a multitude of value-added products.

Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Capacity of Sea Cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa) Processing Discards as Affected by High-Pressure Processing (HPP).

Sea cucumber processing discards, which include mainly internal organs, represent up to 50% of the sea cucumber biomass, and are a rich source of bioactive compounds, including phenolics. This work aimed to extract free, esterified, and insoluble-bound phenolics from the internal organs of the Atlantic sea cucumber (C. frondosa) using high-pressure processing (HPP) pre-treatment. The sea cucumber internal organs were subjected to HPP (6000 bar for 10 min), followed by the extraction and characterization of phenolics. Samples were evaluated for their total contents of phenolics and flavonoids, as well as several in vitro methods of antioxidant activities, namely, free radical scavenging and metal chelation activities. Moreover, anti-tyrosinase and antiglycation properties, as well as inhibitory activities against LDL cholesterol oxidation and DNA damage, were examined. The results demonstrated that HPP pre-treatment had a significant effect on the extraction of phenolics, antioxidant properties, and other bioactivities. The phenolics in sea cucumber internal organs existed mainly in the free form, followed by the insoluble-bound and esterified fractions. Additionally, UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS analysis identified and quantified 23 phenolic compounds from HPP-treated samples, mostly phenolic acids and flavonoids. Hence, this investigation provides fundamental information that helps to design the full utilization of the Atlantic sea cucumber species and the production of a multitude of value-added products.

Effect of Drying on Nutritional Composition of Atlantic Sea Cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa) Viscera Derived from Newfoundland Fisheries

Cucumaria frondosa is the main sea cucumber species harvested from Newfoundland waters. During processing, the viscera of sea cucumber are usually discarded as waste. As a matter of fact, sea cucumber viscera are abundant in various nutrients and promising for valorization. In the present study, sea cucumber viscera were pretreated by air drying and freeze drying, and the nutritional compositions of the dried products were investigated, including proximate composition, lipid class, fatty acid profile, and amino acid composition. The dried viscera had similar levels of ash, lipids, and proteins compared to fresh viscera. Both air- and freeze-dried viscera had total fatty acid composition similar to fresh viscera, with high levels of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (30–31%), especially eicosapentaenoic acid (27–28%), and low levels of omega-6 PUFAs (~1%). The dried samples were abundant in essential amino acids (46–51%). Compared to air-dried viscera, freeze-dried viscera contained a lower content of moisture and free fatty acids, and higher content of glycine and omega-3 PUFAs in phospholipid fraction. The high content of nutritious components in dried viscera of Cucumaria frondosa indicates their great potential for valorization into high-value products.

New Echinoderm-Crab Epibiotic Associations from the Coastal Barents Sea.

Simple SummaryNew biodiversity records are important for expanding our knowledge about the symbiotic associations of the commercially important red king crab. This species was introduced into the Barents Sea, and now its population supports a viable fishery in the area. There are only a few reports regarding epibiotic relationships between echinoderms and marine crabs in general and the red king crab in particular. In our paper, we provide new data on the occurrence of the common starfish, Atlantic sea cucumber, green sea urchin, and brittle star on the invasive red king crab in the Barents Sea. The associations between echinoderms and red king crabs could have important ecological implications and provides an interesting example of how a prey species can avoid death by infesting its predator.During diving surveys for a Russian research project that monitored introduced species, red king crabs (Paralithodes camtschaticus) were collected at a coastal site of the Barents Sea to study the structure and dynamics of this species. Sampling of the organisms colonizing the crabs was part of this research project. For the first time, the presence of relatively large specimens of the common starfish Asterias rubens as epibionts of P. camtschaticus was observed in July 2010, 2018, and 2019. In 2010 and 2019, we also found three other echinoderm species (the Atlantic sea cucumber Cucumaria frondosa, the green sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis, and the brittle star Ophiura sarsii). These findings add to the current list of associated species on king crabs not only in the Barents Sea but also in native areas of this host. Red king crabs have been documented as predators for these echinoderm species, and our records show additional possible interactions between king crabs and echinoderms in this region. More likely, the epibiotic lifestyle allows these echinoderms to avoid predation from red king crabs. There are no potential disadvantages derived by red king crabs through their relationships with the echinoderm epibionts due to low occurrences of these associations. We suggest no negative effects for the local red king crab population and populations of other commercial species in the Barents Sea.

Antioxidant potential and physicochemical properties of protein hydrolysates from body parts of North Atlantic sea cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa)

Protein hydrolysates were prepared from North Atlantic sea cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa) body wall (BW), and processing by-product flower (FL) and internal organs (IN). Sea cucumber proteins from these three tissues were hydrolysed with selected endopeptidases and exopeptidases. The enzymes used were Alcalase (A), and Corolase (C) as endopeptidases and Flavourzyme (F) with both endo- and exopeptidase functions. These were employed individually or in combination under controlled conditions. The hydrolysates so prepared were subsequently analysed for their antioxidant potential and functionalities in food systems for the first time. Hydrolysates treated with the combination of A and F exhibited the highest radical scavenging activity against DPPH and ABTS radicals. The highest metal chelation activity was observed for samples hydrolysed with the combination of enzymes (C + F and A + F). All treatments inhibited beta-carotene bleaching in an oil-in-water emulsion and TBARS production in a meat model system. In addition, sea cucumber protein hydrolysates were more than 75% soluble over a pH range of 2–12. Hydrolysed proteins were also effective in enhancing water holding capacity in a meat model system compared to their untreated counterparts. The amino acids of sea cucumber protein hydrolysates had desirable profiles with glutamic acid as the predominant component in samples analysed. These findings demonstrate the desirable functionalities of hydrolysates from North Atlantic sea cucumber and their potential for use as functional food ingredients.Graphical abstract

Erratum: KARIM MEZALI, AHMED S. THANDAR IHCENE KHODJA (2020) Paraleptopentacta, a new Mediterranean and north-west Atlantic sea cucumber genus, with the first record of P. tergestina n. comb. (Echinodermata: Dendrochirotida: Cucumariidae) from the north-western Algerian coast. Zootaxa, 4860: 199-210.

Erratum: KARIM MEZALI, AHMED S. THANDAR IHCENE KHODJA (2020) Paraleptopentacta, a new Mediterranean and north-west Atlantic sea cucumber genus, with the first record of P. tergestina n. comb. (Echinodermata: Dendrochirotida: Cucumariidae) from the north-western Algerian coast. Zootaxa, 4860: 199-210.

Paraleptopentacta, a new Mediterranean and north-west Atlantic sea cucumber genus, with the first record of P. tergestina n. comb. (Echinodermata: Dendrochirotida: Cucumariidae) from the north-western Algerian coast.

The genus Leptopentacta H.L. Clark, 1938 is here reviewed and restricted to include only the type species and related tropical Pacific forms, while a new genus Paraleptopentacta is erected to accommodate the Mediterranean and some north-west Atlantic species, formerly assigned to Leptopentacta. Paraleptopentacta n. gen. is characterized by a calcareous ring usually without posteriorly forked radial plates, in combination with body wall ossicles as an external layer of baskets (sometimes absent) and an inner layer of smooth (in one species knobbed), single-layered, multilocular plates, without a reticulum, as opposed to Leptopentacta H.L. Clark, 1938, which always has forked tails to the radial plates and ossicles as an external layer of rosettes and/or baskets and an inner layer of multi-layered or often reticulated scales/plates. A key separating both the genera and their species is provided. In addition, a first record of P. tergestina n. comb. (Sars, 1859), based on individuals collected as bycatch by a commercial benthic trawler in the Mostaganem region, north-west Algeria, is briefly described and its in vitro behavior noted.

Generation of antioxidative peptides from Atlantic sea cucumber using alcalase versus trypsin: In vitro activity, de novo sequencing, and in silico docking for in vivo function prediction

A comprehensive evaluation was conducted to compare the generation of antioxidative peptides produced by alcalase versus trypsin from Atlantic sea cucumber. The in vitro antioxidative peptides were sequenced by de novo sequencing using LC–MS/MS. Key constituent antioxidative amino acids (KCAAA), i.e., Cys, His, Met, Trp and Tyr in the peptides and the molecular interactions between peptides and myeloperoxidase (MPO, a mediator and marker of in vivo oxidative stress), were analyzed by in silico methods. Alcalase-produced protein hydrolysates showed 5–35% higher in vitro antioxidant activity than the trypsin-produced ones. UPLC analysis revealed the total amino acid composition in peptide fractions <2 kDa. Alcalase produced 35.4% of peptides with both KCAAA and potential MPO inhibitory activity, compared with only 30.3% for trypsin. A representative peptide sequence TEFHLL generated by alcalase had intense molecular interactions with MPO active site, predicting a capacity to inhibit in vivo oxidative stress.

Identification and characterization of microsatellite loci in West Atlantic sea cucumber Holothuria grisea (Selenka 1867)

The sea cucumber Holothuria grisea has become the subject of intense and unregulated fishing in northeastern Brazil due to their growing demand in Asian market. However, there is little knowledge about the dynamics and genetics of H. grisea wild populations on the South American coast. In this study, we present the first set of H. grisea microsatellite markers, identified and characterized using Illumina paired-end reads of whole genome shotgun sequencing. From 50 strictly selected candidates, eight novel microsatellite markers were successfully developed. We then genotyped 30 individuals to evaluate the degree of polymorphism and validate the markers. The number of alleles ranged from three to 14, while observed and expected heterozygotes ranged from 0.156 to 0.906 and from 0.283 to 0.774, respectively. After correcting for multiple tests,we found no evidence of linkage disequilibrium in all pairwise combinations between the loci. One locus (Hgr15607) revealed deviation from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, as well as the presence of null alleles. However, we observed significant differences in frequency distribution between males and females at locus Hgr15607. We believe that the markers describedhere will be useful for conservation efforts and management of H. grisea fisheries and for prospective aquaculture of these organisms.

Frondoside A Enhances the Anti-Cancer Effects of Oxaliplatin and 5-Fluorouracil on Colon Cancer Cells.

Over recent years, we have demonstrated that Frondoside A, a triterpenoid glycoside isolated from an Atlantic sea cucumber, has potent in vitro and in vivo anti-cancer effects against human pancreatic, breast, and lung cancer. We have also demonstrated that Frondoside A is able to potentiate and/or synergize the anti-cancer effects of major classical cytotoxic agents, namely, gemcitabine, paclitaxel, and cisplatin, in the treatment of pancreatic, breast, and lung cancer, respectively. This study evaluates the impact of Frondoside A alone and in combination with the standard cytotoxic drugs oxaliplatin and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) in the treatment of colon cancer using three human colon cancer cell lines, namely, HT-29, HCT-116, and HCT8/S11. We demonstrate that Frondoside A, oxaliplatin, and 5-FU cause a concentration- and time-dependent reduction in the number of HT-29 colon cancer cells. A concentration of 2.5 µM of Frondoside A led to almost 100% inhibition of cell numbers at 72 h. A similar effect was only observed with a much higher concentration (100 µM) of oxaliplatin or 5-FU. The reduction in cell numbers by Frondoside A, oxaliplatin, and 5-FU was also confirmed in two other colon cancer cell lines, namely, HCT8/S11 and HCT-116, treated for 48 h. The combinations of low concentrations of these drugs for 48 h in vitro clearly demonstrated that Frondoside A enhances the inhibition of cell numbers induced by oxaliplatin or 5-FU. Similarly, such a combination also efficiently inhibited colony growth in vitro. Interestingly, we found that the inhibition of ERK1/2 phosphorylation was significantly enhanced when Frondoside A was used in combination treatments. Moreover, we show that Frondoside A and 5-FU, when used alone, induce a concentration-dependent induction of apoptosis and that their pro-apoptotic effect is dramatically enhanced when used in combination. We further demonstrate that apoptosis induction upon the treatment of colon cancer cells was at least in part a result of the inhibition of phosphorylation of the survival kinase AKT, leading to caspase-3 activation, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inactivation, and consequently DNA damage, as suggested by the increase in the level of γH2AX. In light of these findings, we strongly suggest that Frondoside A may have a role in colon cancer therapy when used in combination with the standard cytotoxic drugs oxaliplatin and 5-FU.

Frondanol, a Nutraceutical Extract from Cucumaria frondosa, Attenuates Colonic Inflammation in a DSS-Induced Colitis Model in Mice.

Frondanol is a nutraceutical lipid extract of the intestine of the edible Atlantic sea cucumber, Cucumaria frondosa, with potent anti-inflammatory effects. In the current study, we investigated Frondanol as a putative anti-inflammatory compound in an experimental model of colonic inflammation. C57BL/6J male black mice (C57BL/6J) were given 3% dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) in drinking water for 7 days to induce colitis. The colitis group received oral Frondanol (100 mg/kg body weight/per day by gavage) and were compared with a control group and the DSS group. Disease activity index (DAI) and colon histology were scored for macroscopic and microscopic changes. Colonic tissue length, myeloperoxidase (MPO) concentration, neutrophil and macrophage marker mRNA, pro-inflammatory cytokine proteins, and their respective mRNAs were measured using ELISA and real-time RT-PCR. The tissue content of leukotriene B4 (LTB4) was also measured using ELISA. Frondanol significantly decreased the DAI and reduced the inflammation-associated changes in colon length as well as macroscopic and microscopic architecture of the colon. Changes in tissue MPO concentrations, neutrophil and macrophage mRNA expression (F4/80 and MIP-2), and pro-inflammatory cytokine content (IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α) both at the protein and mRNA level were significantly reduced by Frondanol. The increase in content of the pro-inflammatory mediator leukotriene B4 (LTB4) induced by DSS was also significantly inhibited by Frondanol. It was thus found that Frondanol supplementation attenuates colon inflammation through its potent anti-inflammatory activity.

The Anti-Cancer Effects of Frondoside A.

Frondoside A is a triterpenoid glycoside from the Atlantic Sea Cucumber, Cucumaria frondosa. Frondoside A has a broad spectrum of anti-cancer effects, including induction of cellular apoptosis, inhibition of cancer cell growth, migration, invasion, formation of metastases, and angiogenesis. In cell lines and animal models studied to date, the anti-cancer effects of the compound are seen in all solid cancers, lymphomas, and leukemias studied to date. These effects appear to be due to potent inhibition of p21-activated kinase 1 (PAK1), which is up-regulated in many cancers. In mouse models, frondoside A has synergistic effects with conventional chemotherapeutic agents, such as gemcitabine, paclitaxel, and cisplatin. Frondoside A administration is well-tolerated. No side effects have been reported and the compound has no significant effects on body weight, blood cells, or on hepatic and renal function tests after long-term administration. Frondoside A may be valuable in the treatment of malignancies, either as a single agent or in combination with other therapeutic modalities.

Reproductive biology of north-eastern Atlantic sea cucumber species: a preliminary assessment

Reproductive biology of north-eastern Atlantic sea cucumber species: a preliminary assessment

Bioactive effect of sulphated polysaccharides derived from orange-footed sea cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa) toward THP-1 macrophages

Atlantic sea cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa) is a marine invertebrate that occurs naturally in the North Atlantic. Its collagen rich body walls make the sea cucumber an appreciated food source in many countries. The heteroglycans derived from the cartilage of Atlantic sea cucumbers have shown potential as a source of bioactive compounds, but further investigation is needed to confirm this hypothesis. The objectives of this work were to test the immunomodulating properties of heteroglycan fractions (FCFs) derived from Atlantic sea cucumbers toward phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) differentiated THP-1 macrophages. Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) was determined and cell culture media was collected and analyzed for presence of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-10). FCFs toxicity toward macrophages was evaluated by light microscopy and confirmed by XTT proliferation assay. Heteroglycans derived from cartilage of Atlantic sea cucumber showed immunomodulatory activity in THP-1 macrophages. FCF-1, −2, and − 3) at concentrations 0.1–100µg/mL induced levels of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-10 proofing their bioactivity towards THP-1 macrophages. However, fractions of FCF-1 and FCF-2 may have induced oxidative stress in the macrophages, which possibly could lead to decreased cellular viability.