Athletic Girls Research Articles

Hand grips strength in athletic and non-athletic girls at different phases of menstrual cycle: an observational case–control study

BackgroundThere are a significant number of female athletes competing at the highest levels of sport. But, women are still largely underrepresented in scientific literature. The female menstrual cycle is characterized by variations in circulating hormone levels, which may have an impact on performance.AimThis study aimed to assess the impact of hormonal changes through different menstrual cycle phases on hand grip strength, pulp pinch strength, three fingers pinch strength, and lateral pinch strength of athletic and non-athletic girls.MethodsAn observational case control study was conducted on forty post-pubertal girls, their ages ranged from 16 to 22 years old, and their body mass index (BMI) ranged from 18.5 to 25 kg/m2. They were divided into two groups: athletic group of twenty basketball and tennis players recruited from basketball and tennis teams at Mena Garden City Club, 6 October Club, and Shooting Club October and non-athletic group of twenty non-sportive undergraduate students from Faculty of Physical Therapy, Misr University for Science and Technology. Hand grip strength was evaluated by Jamar hand dynamometer, while pulp pinch strength, three fingers pinch strength, and lateral pinch strength were evaluated by Jamar pinch gauge through three different menstrual cycle phases (follicular, ovulatory and luteal phases).ResultsStatistical analysis demonstrated a significant increase in handgrip strength, pulp pinch strength, three fingers pinch strength, and lateral pinch strength in non-athletic group. Also, there was a significant increase in three fingers pinch strength and lateral pinch strength in athletic group during the ovulatory phase across the menstrual cycle (p < 0.05). But, there was a significant difference across menstrual phases in handgrip strength and pulp pinch strength in athletic group (p > 0.05).ConclusionHormonal changes during menstrual cycle phases do not alter handgrip strength, pulp pinch strength performance for athletic girls. But, they alter hand grip strength, pulp pinch strength, three fingers, and lateral pinch grip strength performance for non-athletic girls.Trial registrationThe protocol of the study was registered in clinical trials.gov PRS (Protocol Registration and Result System (registration No.NCT06086262), Registered on 17 October 2023). The study received ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board of the Faculty of Physical Therapy at Cairo University prior to its beginning (approval No P.T.REC/012/003358) .

The effect of anti-inflammatory properties of sumac powder (Rhus coriaria L.) along with ferrous sulfate on blood markers and oxidative stress of young athletic girls with non-anemic iron deficiency (NAID)

The effect of anti-inflammatory properties of sumac powder (Rhus coriaria L.) along with ferrous sulfate on blood markers and oxidative stress of young athletic girls with non-anemic iron deficiency (NAID)

Anthropometric characteristics and indicators of protein-­energy metabolism in adolescent girls with dynamic physical activity

Objective — to study the anthropometric characteristics of adolescent girls 12—18 years old, engaged in the have dynamic physical activity, and to determine the indicators of their protein-energy metabolism.&#x0D; Materials and methods. Examinations involved 37 girls aged 12—18, who were engaged in the dynamic sports 3­4 times a week for 3—8 years. The comparison group included 34 practically healthy girls of the same age with similar weight and height parameters who were physically inactive. All girls were examined by a pediatrician, an endocrinologist, a gynecologist, and a psychiatrist. The following anthropometric parameters were examined: height, body weight, shoulder width, arm length, arm span, chest girth, leg length, waist circumference, hip circumference, body mass index was calculated. The concentration of urea in blood serum was determined by the fluorometric method, the levels of creatinine, lactate, activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase and creatine kinase in the blood serum were determined by the photometric method. The blood analysis of female athletes was carried out after two days of rest after training. Statistical processing of data was carried out with the help of Exсel, SPSS, Statgrafics programs.&#x0D; Results and discussion. Low physical activity of adolescent girls was associated with a higher risk of primary dysmenorrhea (OR 3.75; CI 95 %) and the presence of gallbladder folds and deformities (OR 2.34; CI 95 %). No significant differences were revealed in the anthropometric characteristics of the girls with different physical activity. This may indicate the physiological nature of their training regime. Underweight of girls was 1.31 times more likely to be associated with sports (risk ratio (RR) 1.31; CI 95 %), and overweight was 1.45 times more common in adynamic teenagers (RR 1.45; CI 95 %). Levels of urea, creatinine, lactate, activity of ALT, LDH, creatine kinase were significantly higher in group of athletically active girls aged 12—14 than in group of inactive ones, and for athletic girls aged 15—18, the higher levels of alanine aminotransferase and lactate dehydrogenase were noticed.&#x0D; Conclusions. Engagement in the dynamic sports three times a week during 3­8 years does not lead to significant changes in the anthropometric characteristics of adolescent girls compared to physically inactive ones. Sports girls have higher levels of urea, creatinine, lactate, LDH, ALT and creatine kinase, which indicates the intensity of muscle work and the activation of protein­-energy metabolism.

The Impact of Physical Activity on Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis.

The prevalence of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) is increasing, partly due to a lack of physical activity. In a cross-sectional study with 18,216 pupils (5th, 6th, and 8th grades) from four Croatian counties using the forward bend test (FBT; presumed AIS), the prevalence of AIS and its correlation with physical activity were evaluated. Pupils with presumed AIS were less physically active than their peers without scoliosis (p < 0.001). Abnormal FBT was more prevalent among girls than boys (8.3% vs. 3.2%). Boys were more physically active than girls (p < 0.001). Pupils with presumed AIS were less physically active than their peers without scoliosis (p < 0.001). A higher prevalence of presumed AIS was found among inactive or just recreationally active schoolchildren than among those engaged in organized sports (p = 0.001), girls especially. Pupils with presumed AIS were less active and had fewer weekly sports sessions than their peers without scoliosis (p < 0.001). Notably low prevalence of AIS was detected among pupils engaged in soccer (2.8%, p < 0.001), handball (3.4%, p = 0.002), and martial arts (3.9%, p = 0.006), while it was higher than expected in swimming (8.6%, p = 0.012), dancing (7.7%, p = 0.024), and volleyball (8.2%, p = 0.001) participants. No difference was detected for other sports. A positive correlation was found between time spent using handheld electronic devices and the prevalence of scoliosis (rs = 0.06, p < 0.01). This study confirms the increasing prevalence of AIS, particularly among less athletic girls. Further, prospective studies in this field are required to explain whether the higher prevalence of AIS in these sports is due to referral or other aspects.

Psychometric properties of Farsi version of the resilience scale (CD-RISC) and its role in predicting aggression among Iranian athletic adolescent girls

The sport presents an opportunity for young people to experience the joys of success and cope with setbacks to develop resilient behaviors. However, there is a lack of clarity about how sport can cultivate resilience, particularly among adolescent girls. This study investigated the psychometric properties of Farsi version of the Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) and its role in predicting aggression in Iranian athletic adolescent girls. The method of the present study was cross-sectional. The population of this study was Iranian athletic adolescent girls, and 475 Iranian athletic adolescent girls were selected through the convenience sampling method. The participants completed the Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), Quality of Mindfulness, General Self-efficacy (GSE), Alexithymia, and Aggression Scale. The CD-RISC’s psychometric properties were analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis, while reliability was tested using Cronbach’s alpha. Discriminant validity was measured by examining the relationship with alexithymia, and convergent validity was assessed with the quality of mindfulness and GSE. In addition, multiple regression analysis was conducted on the prediction of aggression by the CD-RISC subscales. The five-factor structure provided a good fit for the data. CD-RISC had significant negative associations with alexithymia, and there was a significant positive correlation between CD-RISC and Quality of Mindfulness, GSE. The results indicate that CD-RISC significantly predicts aggression in athletic adolescent girls. The CD-RISC has good validity for athletic adolescent girls in Iran and can be used in psychological evaluations in the Iranian context. CD-RISC significantly predicts aggression among athletic adolescent girls.

Representation of Athletic Girls on Young Adult Sport Fiction Cover Art

The purpose of this study was to examine how and how often athletic girls were represented on the cover art of young adult (YA) sport fiction. In this research, 154 YA sport fiction books were analyzed using quantitative content analysis. Using existing sport research and theory focused on women’s representation in sport media, the researchers developed a coding scheme to assess cover art for each of the following categories: (a) presence and racial representation of female character/s on cover; (b) portrayal of female body on cover (whole body, partial body/with head, or partial body/without head); (c) portrayal of female character as active or passive; (d) portrayal of female character in or out of athletic uniform; (e) portrayal of female character in or out of the sport setting; (f) presence of sport equipment; and (g) type of cover. Findings revealed that 81% of the book covers had a female character in which 29% of the covers displayed the whole body, 47% displayed partial body/with head, and 23% displayed partial body/with no head of the female character. Only 0.06% of the book covers had a female character of color. Approximately 31% of the female characters were displayed in active positioning, 58% in athletic attire, and 44% in the sport setting. Of the books reviewed, 55% displayed equipment on the cover. The findings indicate that athletic girls have few images on YA sport fiction cover art that accurately represent their athleticism, and there is a clear absence of diverse representation. It is critical that those responsible for the design and layout of book covers clearly represent active females in action, in uniform, and in the sport context.

The Effect of 8 Weeks of Resistance Training with and Without Blood Flow Restriction on Serum Levels of Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 and Myostatin of Athletic Girls: A Semi-Experimental Study

The Effect of 8 Weeks of Resistance Training with and Without Blood Flow Restriction on Serum Levels of Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 and Myostatin of Athletic Girls: A Semi-Experimental Study

Effects of training on bone metabolism in young athletes

PurposeThis study investigated the effects of two types of training on the bone formation marker of osteocalcin and the bone resorption marker of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase isoenzyme 5b (TRAP5b) in young track and field boys and girls.MethodsThe 14-year-old group (10 boys, 10 girls) performed first time an intensive and supervised 8-week plyometric training. In the 17-year-old group (13 athletic boys, 6 control boys, 12 athletic girls, 6 control girls), the normal many-sided track and field training lasted 6 months.ResultsSignificant increases were noticed in osteocalcin (&lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.01) both in younger boys and girls. The 20-m sprint performance improved in girls (&lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.01) and the countermovement jump height increased in boys (&lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.001). Significant increases in 17-year-old boys and girls were observed after training in osteocalcin (&lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.01), osteocalcin/TRAP5b ratio (&lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.01 and &lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.001), and the standing 5-jump (&lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.05 and&lt;i&gt; p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.01). Serum TRAP5b decreased both in boys (&lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.05) and in girls (&lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.01). The boys also improved the standing 5-jump (&lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.01) and the 12-minute running test results (&lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.05). In the combined group of all subjects, the correlation coefficient between TRAP5b and age was significant (&lt;i&gt;r&lt;/i&gt; = –0.63, &lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.001, &lt;i&gt;n&lt;/i&gt; = 57).ConclusionsIn practice, it is important to add plyometrics and other strength training in the training plans of young athletes, regardless of their events, to increase their bone metabolism and muscle strength.

A comprehensive model of disordered eating among aesthetic athletic girls: Exploring the role of body image-related cognitive fusion and perfectionistic self- presentation.

The incidence of disordered eating among athlete populations is considerably higher than in the general population. Less well understood is the body image-related emotional processes that might lead to disordered eating attitudes and behaviours, specifically among aesthetic athletic girls. Thus, the aim of the present study was to explore the role that body image-related cognitive fusion plays in disordered eating, and the mediating role of body image-related perfectionist self-presentation on this relationship, in aesthetic athletic girls. This study comprised 142 young female athletes from aesthetic sports, who completed self-report measures. A path analysis was conducted to explore the proposed theoretical model, while controlling for age and zBMI. The path model revealed an excellent fit and explained 71% of the severity of disordered eating. Results showed that body image-related cognitive fusion influences disordered eating behaviours, through the mechanism of body image-related perfectionist self-presentation, even when controlling for age and zBMI. Findings suggested that, in aesthetic athletic girls, the entanglement in body image-related thoughts may be associated with the need to present a perfect body image to others, which may lead to disordered eating attitudes and behaviours, adopted as a means to control weight and body shape. The present study highlights the relevance of body image-related processes in disordered eating and suggests the importance of educational programmes that target the development of more adaptive emotion regulation strategies concerning body image in athletes, particularly from aesthetic sports.

Physical Fitness and Bone Health in Young Athletes and Nonathletes.

Physical activity (PA) and physical fitness (PF) are crucial for bone health. However, children participating in competitive sports with high PA are at a greater risk of fracture from trauma or overuse. Given the importance of bone development during adolescence, associations between commonly used physical fitness tests with distal third radius (R-SoS) and midshaft tibia (T-SoS) speed of sound by quantitative ultrasound were assessed in adolescent athletes and nonathletes. The relationship between physical fitness tests and R-SoS and T-SoS will differ depending on sex and athletic status. Cross-sectional study. Level 3. Physical fitness of 285 boys (156 athletes) and 311 girls (74 athletes) aged 10 to 18 years was assessed through strength, speed, agility, and cardiorespiratory tests. Linear regression was used to assess the associations of physical fitness tests with R-SoS and T-SoS. For boys, favorable associations were observed between physical fitness tests with R-SoS in athletes and T-SoS in both athletes and nonathletes (P < 0.05). For nonathlete girls, favorable associations were found for handgrip (R-SoS and T-SoS, both P < 0.05), whereas the progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance run, vertical jump, speed at 20 m and 40 m were only favorably associated with T-SoS. For athlete girls, the association between handgrip (P = 0.03), vertical jump, and 4 × 10 m shuttle run (P < 0.05) with T-SoS was significantly related to a bone outcome. The handgrip test and vertical jump were associated with T-SoS in boys and girls independent of sport status. These results suggest that physical fitness is associated with bone health in adolescents, particularly boys, and that the relationship between physical fitness and bone may differ depending on sex and athletic status. Physical fitness tests are simple, easy-to-use tools for monitoring bone health and should be used by sport and health professsionals to promote healthy sport participation and prevent bone injuries.

The relationship between Yoga exercises and social physical anxiety in athletic girls

The relationship between Yoga exercises and social physical anxiety in athletic girls

Walking Backwards Improves High School Female Athletes' Balance

The main objective of study was to investigate the effect of backward walking on balance in healthy athletic high school girls. Thirty athletic high school girls were selected with mean age 16.4±0.50 and mean weight of 59.4±12.5 and mean height 1.61±0.05. The participants attended backward walking training sessions 3 times a week for period of 6 weeks. Prior and middle and after training pretest and post-test of semi dynamic balance and dynamic balance were administered using Modified Romberg and Y test. The data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA and Bonferroni post-hoc test (p<0.05). Results showed that backward walking would have significant impact on semi dynamic and dynamic balance (p≤0.000). Due to its positive impact on balance of athletic girls, backward walking training can be used as a complementary training program to increase their efficiency and prevention of injuries. Keywords: Backward walking, Semi dynamic Balance, Dynamic Balance, Proprioception

The Real Us by Tommy Greenwald

Reviewed by: The Real Us by Tommy Greenwald Deborah Stevenson, Editor Greenwald, Tommy The Real Us; illus. by J.P. Coovert. Roaring Brook, 2017 [256p] Trade ed. ISBN 978-1-62672-171-5 $13.99 E-book ed. ISBN 978-1-62672-172-2 $9.99 Reviewed from galleys R Gr. 5-7 Calista is the popular pretty princess; Laura is her overweight former best friend; Damian is the semi-new kid whose jacket-wearing habit hides a hyperhidrosis problem that leaves him soaked with sweat for most of the day. The start of middle school brings surprises for all three of them, starting with Calista’s first experiences with imperfection: she gets a nasty pimple, the makeup she uses to conceal it makes her break out in hives, and then an accidental smack on the nose (from Damian) makes her face swell up, all this just before the big First Week Dance. What sounds like the setup for a tale about the comeuppance of the shallow is actually a smart and age-appropriate exploration of interpersonal dynamics, self-image, and behavior as narration shifts among the three middle-schoolers. Characterization is sympathetic and believable: Calista’s actually a nice, athletic girl (with nice, sane parents), but her popularity is starting to ease her down a less admirable road. Laura and Damian are full people with their own strengths, blind spots, and defensive missteps, not just teachable encounters for Calista. This will be a natural step up for Andrew Clements fans or an interesting pairing with Hurwitz’s Ethan Marcus Stands Up, reviewed below. Reviewed from an unillustrated galley. Copyright © 2017 The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois

Szomatotípus dominancia és szexuális érés

The purposes of the study were 1) to examine indices of sexual maturation in athlete girls having predominantly endo-, meso- and ectomorph physique; 2) to demonstrate alterations in somatotype by breast maturation. 813 pubertal athlete girls (aged between 10 and 17 years) belonging to different sports events were studied. Somatotype was determined by the Heath–Carter method. Somatotype dominance was decided arbitrarily: the cut-off point was 4.75 unit for the dominant component. The other two components were minimum 1.5 unit below the dominant one. Breast development was rated according to Tanner’s suggestions. Data for menarche were collected by “status-quo” method. The age medians of maturation indices were calculated. Athletes with endomorph dominance matured the earliest. Mesomorphs started to develop their sexual characteristic later than endomorphs and had the latest completion of breast maturation. Girls with ectomorph predominance matured the latest and the fastest. Meso- and ectomorphs preserved their dominant component during breast maturation. Similarly to normal pubescent girls, they increased their relative fatness, but in a different rate. Staying in the mesomorphic endomorph field, endomorphs did not change their body form as maturation proceeded.

The effect of Exercise on the Age at Menarche in Girls at Guidance Schools of Shiraz, Iran

Background: Menarche is a woman’s first menstruation and is determined by multiple factors. Objectives: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of exercise on the age of menarche in girls at guidance schools of Shiraz, Iran. Patients and Methods: This cross-sectional study attempted to evaluate the effect of regular exercise on the age of menarche in relation to demographic data in 483 randomly selected girls from guidance school in Shiraz, Iran, using statistical analysis including independent t-test, variance analysis and linear regression tests. Results: Participants were divided in two groups including 181 and 302 athletic and non-athletic girls, respectively. A statistically significant difference was found in the mean age at menarche between athletic 12.4 ± 0.9 SD and non-athletic girls 12.1 ± 1.0 SD years (P = 0.003). Linear regression indicated that mother’s age (P = 0.049) and exercise (P = 0.001) both have significant association with age at menarche. Conclusions: The age at menarche for the athletic group was significantly delayed. Exercise and mother’s age were significantly associated with age at menarche, whereas no significant association was observed between age at menarche and weight, BMI, father’s age, and mother’s and father’s educational levels.

Comparison Amount of Mental Health Between Athlete and Non Athlete Girl Students of Islamic Azad University Omidiyeh Branch

Jahoda (1958) elaborated on the 1947 WHO declaration that “health is not merely the absence of illness but a complete state of physical, psychological and social well-being” by separating mental health into three domains. First, mental health involves self-realization in that individuals are allowed to fully exploit their potential. Second, mental health includes a sense of mastery by the individual over their environment, and, finally, that positive mental health also means autonomy, as in individuals having the ability to identify, confront, and solve problems.This is a descriptive study that has been done on girl students of Islamic Azad University Omidiyeh Branch(IAUOB). For evaluation of mental health the GHQ-28 questionnaire of Gold Berg and Hiller (1979) was used. Also we separated athlete and non athlete students with the use of physical activity levels. Therefore those students that had 3 session's regular exercise a week indicated as active and the other students that did not do any exercise during a week indicated as sedentary. The statistical population of this research was all girl students of Omidiyeh University that among them 200 persons (active= 100 & non active = 100) by randomly filled out the general health questionnaire. The statistical analyze ion of data has been done by computer and SPSS program with the use of independent samples test method and also a≤0.05. The results show that there is significant difference (p-value=0.001) between athlete and non athlete girls students of IAUOB.

Heart Rate Variability in Adolescents - Normative Data Stratified by Sex and Physical Activity.

Heart rate variability (HRV) refers to the beat-to-beat fluctuations in the cardiac rhythm occurring due to modulation of the pacemaker (sinoatrial node) activity of the heart by the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system. Nowadays, cardiovascular diseases and their risk factors are increasingly occurring at a younger age (children and adolescents) and recording of HRV in them will help us to identify cardiovascular autonomic derangement earlier. However, to be used clinically, normative data has to be established in this age group considering other major factors that can influence HRV such as sex, physical activity, and BMI. Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology has provided the standards for measurement of heart rate variability and we have followed the same. In the present study, we have described the normative data for HRV in the adolescent in the age group of 12-17 years, stratified based on sex and physical activity. Data given below are expressed as median with interquartile range (Median (IQR)) in the following order: non-athlete girls, non athlete boys, athlete girls and athlete boys. Time domain indices - SDNN - 66.35 (40.78), 63.20 (36.20), 113.00 (31.40) and 94.20 (35.55); RMSSD - 69.00 (50.55), 58.70 (43.40), 94.90 (42.10) and 100.30 (47.50); NN50 - 137.50 (100.25), 116.00 (90.50), 137.00 (81.00) and 156.00 (81.50). The frequency domain indices - LF power 1015.00 (1098.75), 945.00 (831.00), 1465 (642.25), and 1211.00 (811.37); HF power - 1324.00 (1707.00), 988.00 (1426.50), 2409.00 (1387.50), and 2219.00 (1752.00); Total power - 3374.50 (3094.25), 2757.00 (2641.00), 5202.00 (2501.50) and 5273.00 (3507.50); LFnu - 45.44 (16.61), 47.63 (29.98), 38.59 (11.81) and 37.10 (11.21); HFnu - 54.56 (16.61), 52.37 (29.98), 61.41 (11.81) and 62.90 (11.21). We have given sex and physical activity stratified HRV normative data for adolescents in the age between 12-17 years.

Validation of a Tunisian Version of the French Scale State Anxiety in Competition (EEAC): Sport and Exercise Context

This study aims to adapt the CSAI-2 in the French version (EEAC), among 156 Tunisian athlete boys and girls one hour before competition. Therefore, our purpose is to refine the factorial analysis and get a shorter but stronger structure of the EECA version. Our study proposes a new Tunisian version of 13 items with (α = 0.85) instead of the first twenty three French version.

Oxidative stress and total antioxidant capacity in handball players.

Background:Exercise training increases oxygen consumption, which was associated with the high generation of reactive oxygen species and markers of lipid peroxidation in the blood. The aim of this study was to assess the responses of total antioxidant capacity (TAC), biomarker of oxidative stress and erythrocyte, leukocyte and hematocrit (Hct) levels in plasma in athlete girls (handball players) and non-athlete girls.Materials and Methods:We evaluated two groups, which known as athlete and non-athlete women and they were similar in anthropometric characteristics. The athletic women engaged in the regular handball training 3 times a week for at least 6 months. However, non-athletic women didn’t have any regular activity over the last 6 months. Each subject referred to the lab and after 12 h fasting, the blood samples were taken for measuring all variables. Independent sample t-tests were used to identify the differences.Result:Significant differences were observed in malondehyde (P = 0.00), red blood (P = 0.00) cell and hemoglobin (P = 0.00). However, other evaluated factors such as of TAC, white blood cell, Hct and the mean corpuscular volume were higher in athletes than in non-athletes, but statistical significant differences weren’t seen in these variables between two groups.Conclusion:Regular exercise training for handball players may increase the activity of antioxidant enzymes and blood cells and reduces oxidant production.

Active Bodies: A History of Women’s Physical Education in Twentieth-Century America by Martha H. Verbrugge (review)

Reviewed by: Active Bodies: A History of Women’s Physical Education in Twentieth-Century America by Martha H. Verbrugge Heather Munro Prescott Martha H. Verbrugge. Active Bodies: A History of Women’s Physical Education in Twentieth-Century America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. xi + 391 pp. Ill. $55.00 (978-0-19-516879-2). The release of this book could not be more timely: in 2012, the United States celebrated the fortieth anniversary of Title IX, which mandated equal opportunity for women’s athletics; and the International Olympic Committee proudly reported that the Summer Olympics in London was the first to have female athletes from all countries participating in the games. At the same time, the representation of female athletes in the media is still tinged with lingering racism and sexism, as media spend as much time on clothing and hairstyles as they do on athletic accomplishments. Verbrugge traces the historical trends that have led to this mixed legacy. [End Page 292] Verbrugge focuses her study on the careers and ideas of women, white and black, who taught physical education from the late nineteenth century to the present. She thereby makes a major contribution to our understanding of the history of female professionals in this period. She departs from other histories of physical education by placing the evolution of the field within America’s unique social and cultural milieu. Those familiar with the history of women in medicine will find many similarities between the experiences of female physicians and those of Verbrugge’s subjects: in fact, a significant number of the physical education pioneers were trained in medicine. Like medicine, the field of physical education in the late nineteenth century was still establishing itself as a respectable, scientific profession, and requirements for entry into the discipline were nebulous. Women and African Americans took advantage of physical education’s protean status to make a place for themselves in this emerging discipline. Like female physicians, women in physical education challenged gender norms by pursuing careers and being physically active. Thus, physical education became a viable career for athletic girls. Verbrugge departs from other histories of physical education by drawing on the work of Cynthia Eagle Russett, Anne Fausto-Sterling, Londa Schiebinger, and others on the relationship between health professions and the science of sex and race differences. Physical education attempted to enhance its professional status by drawing on the emerging sciences of the human body. These sciences called into question the “fitness” of female and nonwhite minds and bodies for college-level study. By physically embodying educated, active, healthy womanhood, women physical educators helped to undercut some Victorian notions about the female body. Yet, in order to make a place for themselves in the profession, women also had to emphasize the innate differences between men and women. This led female physical educators to create gender constraints of their own. White female physical educators upheld a professional ideal called “Phy Ed-iquette,” which was used to a bolster white, middle-class, heterosexual model of gender in teacher candidates. Black women physical educators imposed similar professional expectations on their students, epitomized by the concept of “Beauty Health” promoted by Maryrose Reeves Allen at Howard University. Like Phy Ed-iquette, Beauty Health equated femininity with middle-class, heterosexual norms. However, Beauty Health “also articulated a keen racial consciousness” (p. 88) and mission of racial uplift by finding beauty in black women’s physical features. Verbrugge concludes by explaining why we are still far from achieving full equality for female athletes and physical education professionals. She demonstrates that Title IX was a mixed blessing for women’s athletics: while this landmark reform in education law greatly expanded opportunities for female athletes, it also made teaching and coaching girls and women’s sports more attractive to men. Male coaches benefitted from professional networks and hiring practices that favored men. Title IX also led to the merger of men’s and women’s athletic departments, thereby marginalizing female athletic leaders even further. Thus, while the number of coaching positions for women’s teams expanded greatly, women’s share of those positions plummeted. The situation was especially bad for African American women: their representation in top positions hovers...