Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array Observations Research Articles

Molecular Gas Kinematics in Local Early-Type Galaxies with ALMA

Local early-type galaxies (ETGs) are mostly populated by old stars, with little or no recent star formation activity. For this reason, they have historically been believed to be essentially devoid of cold gas, which is the fuel for the formation of new stars. Over the past two decades, however, increasingly-sensitive instrumentation observing the sky at (sub-)millimetre wavelengths has revealed the presence of significant amounts of cold molecular gas in the hearts of nearby ETGs. The unprecedented capabilities offered by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), in particular, have allowed us to obtain snapshots of the central regions of these ETGs with unprecedented detail, mapping this gas with higher sensitivity and resolution than ever before possible. Studies of the kinematics of the observed cold gas reservoirs are crucial for galaxy formation and evolution theories, providing, e.g., constraints on the fundamental properties and fuelling/feedback processes of super-massive black holes (SMBHs) at the centre of these galaxies. In this brief review, we summarise what the first 10 years of ALMA observations have taught us about the distribution and kinematics of the cold molecular gas component in nearby ellipticals and lenticulars.

MIDIS: JWST/MIRI Reveals the Stellar Structure of ALMA-selected Galaxies in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field at Cosmic Noon

We present deep James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)/Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) F560W observations of a flux-limited, Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA)-selected sample of 28 galaxies at z = 0.5–3.7 in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF). The data from the MIRI Deep Imaging Survey (MIDIS) reveal the stellar structure of the HUDF galaxies at rest-frame wavelengths of λ > 1 μm for the first time. We revise the stellar mass estimates using new JWST photometry and find good agreement with pre-JWST analyses; the few discrepancies can be explained by blending issues in the earlier lower-resolution Spitzer data. At z ∼ 2.5, the resolved rest-frame near-infrared (1.6 μm) structure of the galaxies is significantly more smooth and centrally concentrated than seen by the Hubble Space Telescope at rest-frame 450 nm (F160W), with effective radii of R e (F560W) = 1–5 kpc and Sérsic indices mostly close to an exponential (disk-like) profile (n ≈ 1), up to n ≈ 5 (excluding active galactic nuclei). We find an average size ratio of R e (F560W)/R e (F160W) ≈ 0.7 that decreases with stellar mass. The stellar structure of the ALMA-selected galaxies is indistinguishable from a HUDF reference sample of all galaxies with a MIRI flux density greater than 1 μJy. We supplement our analysis with custom-made, position-dependent, empirical point-spread function models for the F560W observations. The results imply that a smoother stellar structure is in place in massive gas-rich, star-forming galaxies at “Cosmic Noon,” despite a more clumpy rest-frame optical appearance, placing additional constraints on galaxy formation simulations. As a next step, matched-resolution, resolved ALMA observations will be crucial to further link the mass- and light-weighted galaxy structures to the dusty interstellar medium.

WISDOM project XX. – Strong shear tearing molecular clouds apart in NGC 524

Abstract Early-type galaxies (ETGs) are known to harbour dense spheroids of stars but scarce star formation (SF). Approximately a quarter of these galaxies have rich molecular gas reservoirs yet do not form stars efficiently. We study here the ETG NGC 524, with strong shear suspected to result in a smooth molecular gas disc and low star-formation efficiency (SFE). We present new spatially-resolved observations of the 12CO(2-1)-emitting cold molecular gas from the Atacama Large Millimeter/sub-millimeter Array (ALMA) and of the warm ionised-gas emission lines from SITELLE at the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope. Although constrained by the resolution of the ALMA observations (≈37 pc), we identify only 52 GMCs with radii ranging from 30 to 140 pc, a low mean molecular gas mass surface density 〈Σgas〉 ≈ 125 M⊙ pc−2 and a high mean virial parameter 〈αobs, vir〉 ≈ 5.3. We measure spatially-resolved molecular gas depletion times (τdep ≡ 1/SFE) with a spatial resolution of ≈100 pc within a galactocentric distance of 1.5 kpc. The global depletion time is ≈2.0 Gyr but τdep increases toward the galaxy centre, with a maximum τdep, max ≈ 5.2 Gyr. However, no pure H ii region is identified in NGC 524 using ionised-gas emission-line ratio diagnostics, so the τdep inferred are in fact lower limits. Measuring the GMC properties and dynamical states, we conclude that shear is the dominant mechanism shaping the molecular gas properties and regulating SF in NGC 524. This is supported by analogous analyses of the GMCs in a simulated ETG similar to NGC 524.

An ALMA Search for Substructure and Fragmentation in Starless Cores in Orion B North

We present Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Cycle 3 observations of 73 starless and protostellar cores in the Orion B North molecular cloud. We detect a total of 34 continuum sources at 106 GHz, and after comparisons with other data, four of these sources appear to be starless. Three of the four sources are located near groupings of protostellar sources, while one source is an isolated detection. We use synthetic observations of a simulation modeling a collapsing turbulent, magnetized core to compute the expected number of starless cores that should be detectable with our ALMA observations and find at least two (1.52) starless cores should be detectable (at 5σ), consistent with our data. We run a simple virial analysis of the cores to put the Orion B North observations into context with similar previous ALMA surveys of cores in Chamaeleon I and Ophiuchus. We conclude that the Chamaeleon I starless core population is characteristically less bounded than the other two populations, along with external pressure contributions dominating the binding energy of the cores. These differences may explain why the Chamaeleon I cores do not follow turbulent model predictions, while the Ophiuchus and Orion B North cores are consistent with the model.

Molecular line polarisation from the circumstellar envelopes of asymptotic giant branch stars

Context. Polarisation observations of masers in the circumstellar envelopes (CSEs) around asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars have revealed strong magnetic fields. However, masers probe only specific lines of sight through the CSE. Non-masing molecular line polarisation observations can more directly reveal the large-scale magnetic field morphology and hence probe the effect of the magnetic field on AGB mass loss and the shaping of the AGB wind. Aims. Observations and models of CSE molecular line polarisation can now be used to describe the magnetic field morphology and estimate its strength throughout the entire CSE. Methods. We used observations taken with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) of molecular line polarisation in the envelope of two AGB stars: CW Leo and R Leo. We modelled the observations using the multi-dimensional polarised radiative transfer tool PORTAL. Results. We found linearly polarised emission, with maximum fractional polarisation on the order of a few percent, in several molecular lines towards both stars. Towards R Leo, we also found a high level of linear polarisation (up to ∼35%) for one of the SiO v = 1 maser transitions. We can explain the observed differences in polarisation structure between the different molecular lines by alignment of the molecules through a combination of the Goldreich-Kylafis effect and radiative alignment effects. We specifically show that the polarisation of CO traces the morphology of the magnetic field. Competition between the alignment mechanisms allowed us to describe the behaviour of the magnetic field strength as a function of the radius throughout the circumstellar envelope of CW Leo. The magnetic field strength derived using this method is inconsistent with the magnetic field strength derived using a structure-function analysis of the CO polarisation and the strength previously derived using CN Zeeman observations. In contrast with CW Leo, the magnetic field in the outer envelope of R Leo appears to be advected outwards by the stellar wind. Conclusions. The ALMA observations and our polarised radiative transfer models show the power of using multiple molecular species to trace the magnetic field behaviour throughout the circumstellar envelope. While the observations appear to confirm the existence of a large-scale magnetic field, further observations and modelling are needed to understand the apparent inconsistency of the magnetic field strength derived with different methods in the envelope of CW Leo.

The ALPINE-ALMA [C ii] survey: characterization of spatial offsets in main-sequence galaxies at z ∼ 4–6

ABSTRACT The morphology of galaxies is shaped by stellar activity, feedback, gas and dust properties, and interactions with surroundings, and can therefore provide insight into these processes. In this paper, we study the spatial offsets between stellar and interstellar medium emission in a sample of 54 main-sequence star-forming galaxies at z ∼ 4–6 observed with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), and drawn from the ALMA Large Program to INvestigate C+ at Early times (ALPINE). We find no significant spatial offset for the majority (∼70 per cent) of galaxies in the sample among any combination of [C ii], far-infrared continuum, optical, and ultraviolet emission. However, a fraction of the sample (∼30 per cent) shows offsets larger than the median by more than 3σ significance (compared to the uncertainty on the offsets), especially between [C ii] and ultraviolet emission. We find that these significant offsets are of the order of ∼0.5–0.7 arcsec, corresponding to ∼3.5–4.5 kiloparsecs. The offsets could be caused by a complex dust geometry, strong feedback from stars and active galactic nuclei, large-scale gas inflow and outflow, or a combination of these phenomena. However, our current analysis does not definitively constrain the origin. Future, higher resolution ALMA and JWST observations may help resolve the ambiguity. Regardless, since there exist at least some galaxies that display such large offsets, galaxy models and spectral energy distribution fitting codes cannot assume co-spatial emission in all main-sequence galaxies, and must take into account that the observed emission across wavelengths may be spatially segregated.

Gas-dynamical Mass Measurements of the Supermassive Black Holes in the Early-type Galaxies NGC 4786 and NGC 5193 from ALMA and HST Observations* *Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. These observations are associated

We present molecular gas-dynamical mass measurements of the central black holes in the giant elliptical galaxies NGC 4786 and NGC 5193, based on CO (2−1) observations from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) and Hubble Space Telescope near-infrared imaging. The central region in each galaxy contains a circumnuclear disk that exhibits orderly rotation with projected line-of-sight velocities of ∼270 km s−1. We build gas-dynamical models for the rotating disk in each galaxy and fit them directly to the ALMA data cubes. At 0.″31 resolution, the ALMA observations do not fully resolve the black hole sphere of influence (SOI), and neither galaxy exhibits a central rise in rotation speed, indicating that emission from deep within the SOI is not detected. As a result, our models do not tightly constrain the central black hole mass in either galaxy, but they prefer the presence of a central massive object in both galaxies. We measure the black hole mass to be (MBH/108M⊙)=5.0±0.2[1σstatistical]−1.3+1.4[systematic] in NGC 4786 and (MBH/108M⊙)=1.4±0.03[1σstatistical]−0.1+1.5[systematic] in NGC 5193. The largest component of each measurement’s error budget is from the systematic uncertainty associated with the extinction correction in the host galaxy models. This underscores the importance of assessing the impact of dust attenuation on the inferred M BH.

Into the thick of it: ALMA 0.45 mm observations of HL Tau at a resolution of 2 au

To comprehend the efficiency of dust evolution within protoplanetary disks, it is crucial to conduct studies of these disks using high-resolution observations at multiple wavelengths with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). In this work, we present high-frequency ALMA observations of the HL Tau disk using its Band 9 centered at a wavelength of 0.45 mm. These observations achieve the highest angular resolution in a protoplanetary disk to date, 12 milliarcseconds (mas), allowing the study of the dust emission at scales of 2 au. We used these data to extend the previously published multiwavelength analysis of the HL Tau disk, constraining the dust temperature, dust surface density, and maximum grain size throughout the disk. We performed this modeling for compact solid dust particles as well as for porous particles. Our new 0.45 mm data mainly trace optically thick emission, providing a tight constraint to the dust temperature profile. We derive maximum particle sizes of $ cm from the inner disk to $ au. Beyond this radius, we find particles between 300 mu m and 1 mm. The total dust mass of the disk is 2.1 J $ with compact grains, and it increases to 6.3 M$_ J $ assuming porous particles. Moreover, an intriguing asymmetry is observed at 32 au in the northeast inner part of the HL Tau disk at 0.45 mm. We propose that this asymmetry is the outcome of a combination of factors, including the optically thick nature of the emission, the orientation of the disk, and a relatively large dust scale height of the grains that is preferentially traced at 0.45 mm. To validate this, we conducted a series of radiative transfer models using the software RADMC-3D. Our models varying dust masses and scale heights successfully replicate the observed asymmetry in the HL Tau disk. If this scenario is correct, our measured dust mass within 32 au would suggest a dust scale height H/R$>0.08$ for the inner disk. Finally, the unprecedented resolution allowed us to probe the dust emission down to scales of a few au for the first time. We observed an increase in brightness temperature inside the estimated water snowline, and we speculate whether this might indicate a traffic-jam effect in the inner disk. Our results show that 0.45 mm observations of protoplanetary disks can be used to robustly constrain the radial profile of their dust temperature. Additionally, the higher optical depths at this wavelength can be used to constrain the vertical scale height of the dust. Finally, these higher frequencies allow us to reach higher spatial resolutions, which have the potential to resolve the region within the water snowline in disks.

An Automated Chemical Exploration of NGC 6334I at 340 au Resolution

Much of the information gleaned from observations of star-forming regions comes from the analysis of their molecular emission spectra, particularly in the radio regime. The time-consuming nature of fitting synthetic spectra to observations interactively for such line-rich sources, however, often results in such analysis being limited to data extracted from a single-dish observation or a handful of pixels from an interferometric observation. Yet, star-forming regions display a wide variety of physical conditions that are difficult, if not impossible, to accurately characterize with such a limited number of spectra. We have developed an automated fitting routine that visits every pixel in the field of view of an Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) data cube and determines the best-fit physical parameters, including excitation temperature and column densities, for a given list of molecules. In this proof-of-concept work, we provide an overview of the fitting routine and apply it to 0.″26, 1.1 km s−1 resolution ALMA observations of two sites of massive star formation in NGC 6334I. Parameters were found for 21 distinct molecules by generating synthetic spectra across 7.48 GHz of spectral bandwidth between 280 and 351 GHz. Spatial images of the derived parameters for each of the >8000 pixels are presented with special attention paid to the C2H4O2 isomers and their relative variations. We highlight the greater scientific utility of the column density and velocity images of individual molecules compared to traditional moment maps of single transitions.

An ALMA Molecular Inventory of Warm Herbig Ae Disks. II. Abundant Complex Organics and Volatile Sulphur in the IRS 48 Disk

The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) can probe the molecular content of planet-forming disks with unprecedented sensitivity. These observations allow us to build up an inventory of the volatiles available for forming planets and comets. Herbig Ae transition disks are fruitful targets due to the thermal sublimation of complex organic molecules (COMs) and likely H2O-rich ices in these disks. The IRS 48 disk shows a particularly rich chemistry that can be directly linked to its asymmetric dust trap. Here, we present ALMA observations of the IRS 48 disk where we detect 16 different molecules and make the first robust detections of H213CO , 34SO, 33SO, and c-H2COCH2 (ethylene oxide) in a protoplanetary disk. All of the molecular emissions, aside from CO, are co-located with the dust trap, and this includes newly detected simple molecules such as HCO+, HCN , and CS. Interestingly, there are spatial offsets between different molecular families, including between the COMs and sulfur-bearing species, with the latter being more azimuthally extended and radially located further from the star. The abundances of the newly detected COMs relative to CH3OH are higher than the expected protostellar ratios, which implies some degree of chemical processing of the inherited ices during the disk lifetime. These data highlight IRS 48 as a unique astrochemical laboratory to unravel the full volatile reservoir at the epoch of planet and comet formation and the role of the disk in (re)setting chemical complexity.

Physical Properties of Hyperluminous, Dust-obscured Quasars at z ∼ 3: Multiwavelength Spectral Energy Distribution Analysis and Cold Gas Content Revealed by ALMA

We present a UV to millimeter spectral energy distribution (SED) analysis of 16 hyperluminous, dust-obscured quasars at z ∼ 3, selected by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer. We aim to investigate the physical properties of these quasars, with a focus on their molecular gas content. We decompose the SEDs into three components: stellar, cold dust, and active galactic nucleus (AGN). By doing so, we are able to derive and analyze the relevant properties of each component. We determine the molecular gas mass from CO line emission based on Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) observations. By including ALMA observations in the multiwavelength SED analysis, we derive the molecular gas fractions, gas depletion timescales, and star formation efficiencies (SFEs). Their sample median and 16th–84th quartile ranges are fgas∼0.33−0.17+0.33 , t depl ∼ 39−28+85 Myr, and SFE ∼ 297−195+659 K km s−1 pc−2, respectively. Compared to main-sequence galaxies, they have lower molecular gas content and higher SFEs, similar to quasars in the literature. This suggests that the gas in these quasars is rapidly depleted, likely as the result of intense starburst activity and AGN feedback. The observed correlations between these properties and the AGN luminosities further support this scenario. Additionally, we infer the black hole to stellar mass ratio and black hole mass growth rate, which indicate significant central black hole mass assembly over short timescales. Our results are consistent with the scenario that our sample represents a short transition phase toward unobscured quasars.

Is Betelgeuse Really Rotating? Synthetic ALMA Observations of Large-scale Convection in 3D Simulations of Red Supergiants

The evolved stages of massive stars are poorly understood, but invaluable constraints can be derived from spatially resolved observations of nearby red supergiants, such as Betelgeuse. Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) observations of Betelgeuse showing a dipolar velocity field have been interpreted as evidence for a projected rotation rate of about 5 km s−1. This is 2 orders of magnitude larger than predicted by single-star evolution, which led to suggestions that Betelgeuse is a binary merger. We propose instead that large-scale convective motions can mimic rotation, especially if they are only partially resolved. We support this claim with 3D CO5BOLD simulations of nonrotating red supergiants that we postprocessed to predict ALMA images and SiO spectra. We show that our synthetic radial velocity maps have a 90% chance of being falsely interpreted as evidence for a projected rotation rate of 2 km s−1 or larger for our fiducial simulation. We conclude that we need at least another ALMA observation to firmly establish whether Betelgeuse is indeed rapidly rotating. Such observations would also provide insight into the role of angular momentum and binary interaction in the late evolutionary stages. The data will further probe the structure and complex physical processes in the atmospheres of red supergiants, which are immediate progenitors of supernovae and are believed to be essential in the formation of gravitational-wave sources.

Comparing SCUBA-2 and ALMA Selections of Faint Dusty Star-forming Galaxies in A2744

We make a comparison of deep SCUBA-2 450 and 850 μm imaging on the massive lensing cluster field A2744 with Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) 1.2 mm data. Our primary goal is to assess how effective the wider-field SCUBA-2 sample, in combination with red JWST priors, is for finding faint dusty star-forming galaxies (DSFGs) compared to the much more expensive mosaicked ALMA observations. We cross-match our previously reported direct (>5σ) SCUBA-2 sample and red JWST NIRCam prior-selected (>3σ) SCUBA-2 sample to direct ALMA sources from the DUALZ survey. We find that roughly 95% are confirmed by ALMA. The red priors also allow us to probe deeper in the ALMA image. Next, by measuring the 450 and 850 μm properties of the full ALMA sample, we show that 46/69 of the ALMA sources are detected at 850 μm and 24/69 are detected at 450 μm in the SCUBA-2 images, with a total detection fraction of nearly 75%. All of the robust (>5σ) ALMA sources that are not detected in at least one SCUBA-2 band lie at 1.2 mm fluxes ≲0.6 mJy and are undetected primarily due to the higher SCUBA-2 flux limits. We also find that the SCUBA-2 detection fraction drops slightly beyond z = 3, which we attribute to the increasing 1.2 mm to 850 μm and 1.2 mm to 450 μm flux ratios combined with the ALMA selection. The results emphasize the power of combining SCUBA-2 data with JWST colors to map the faint DSFG population.

The CO Outflow Components Ejected by a Recent Accretion Event in B335

Protostellar outflows often present a knotty appearance, providing evidence of sporadic accretion in stellar mass growth. To understand the direct relation between mass accretion and ejection, we analyze the contemporaneous accretion activity and associated ejection components in B335. B335 has brightened in the mid-IR by 2.5 mag since 2010, indicating increased luminosity, presumably due to an increased mass accretion rate onto the protostar. Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) observations of 12CO emission in the outflow reveal high-velocity emission, estimated to have been ejected 4.6–2 yr before the ALMA observations and consistent with the jump in mid-IR brightness. The consistency in timing suggests that the detected high-velocity ejection components are directly linked to the most recent accretion activity. We calculated the kinetic energy, momentum, and force for the ejection component associated with the most recent accretion activity and found that, at least, about 1.0% of the accreted mass has been ejected. More accurate information on the jet inclination and the temperature of the ejected gas components will better constrain the ejected mass induced by the recently enhanced accretion event.

Searching for C ii Emission from the First Sample of z ∼ 6 O i Absorption-associated Galaxies with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array

We report the first statistical analyses of [C ii] and dust continuum observations in six strong O i absorber fields at the end of the reionization epoch obtained by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). Combined with one [C ii] emitter reported in Wu et al., we detect one O i-associated [C ii] emitter in six fields. At redshifts of O i absorbers in nondetection fields, no emitters are brighter than our detection limit within impact parameters of 50 kpc and velocity offsets between ±200 km s−1. The averaged [C ii]-detection upper limit is <0.06 Jy km s−1(3σ), corresponding to the [C ii] luminosity of L [C II]< 5.8 × 107 L ⊙ and the [C ii]-based star formation rate of SFR[C II]<5.5 M ⊙ yr−1. Cosmological simulations suggest that only ∼10−2.5 [C ii] emitters around O i absorbers have comparable SFR to our detection limit. Although the detection in one out of six fields is reported, an order of magnitude number excess of emitters obtained from our ALMA observations supports that the contribution of massive galaxies that caused the metal enrichment cannot be ignored. Further, we also found 14 tentative galaxy candidates with a signal-to-noise ratio of ≈4.3 at large impact parameters (>50 kpc) and having larger outflow velocities within ±600 km s−1. If these detections are confirmed in the future, then the mechanism of pushing metals at larger distances with higher velocities needs to be further explored from the theoretical side.

ALMA Observations of the DART Impact: Characterizing the Ejecta at Submillimeter Wavelengths

We report observations of the Didymos–Dimorphos binary asteroid system using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) and the Atacama Compact Array (ACA) in support of the Double Asteroid Redirection Test mission. Our observations on UT 2022 September 15 provided a preimpact baseline and the first measure of Didymos–Dimorphos’s spectral emissivity at λ = 0.87 mm, which was consistent with the handful of siliceous and carbonaceous asteroids measured at millimeter wavelengths. Our postimpact observations were conducted using four consecutive executions each of ALMA and the ACA spanning from T+3.52 to T+8.60 hr, sampling thermal emission from the asteroids and the impact ejecta. We scaled our preimpact baseline measurement and subtracted it from the postimpact observations to isolate the flux density of millimeter-sized grains in the ejecta. Ejecta dust masses were calculated for a range of materials that may be representative of Dimorphos’s S-type asteroid material. The average ejecta mass over our observations is consistent with 1.3–6.4 × 107 kg, with the lower and higher values calculated for amorphous and crystalline silicates, respectively. Owing to the likely crystalline nature of S-type asteroid material, the higher value is favored. These ejecta masses represent 0.3%–1.5% of Dimorphos’s total mass and are in agreement with lower limits on the ejecta mass based on measurements at optical wavelengths. Our results provide the most sensitive measure of millimeter-sized material in the ejecta and demonstrate the power of ALMA for providing supporting observations to spaceflight missions.

Early Planet Formation in Embedded Disks (eDisk). XII. Accretion Streamers, Protoplanetary Disk, and Outflow in the Class I Source Oph IRS 63

We present Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) observations of the Class I source Oph IRS 63 in the context of the Early Planet Formation in Embedded Disks large program. Our ALMA observations of Oph IRS 63 show a myriad of protostellar features, such as a shell-like bipolar outflow (in 12CO), an extended rotating envelope structure (in 13CO), a streamer connecting the envelope to the disk (in C18O), and several small-scale spiral structures seen toward the edge of the dust continuum (in SO). By analyzing the velocity pattern of 13CO and C18O, we measure a protostellar mass of M ⋆ = 0.5 ± 0.2 M ⊙ and confirm the presence of a disk rotating at almost Keplerian velocity that extends up to ∼260 au. These calculations also show that the gaseous disk is about four times larger than the dust disk, which could indicate dust evolution and radial drift. Furthermore, we model the C18O streamer and SO spiral structures as features originating from an infalling rotating structure that continuously feeds the young protostellar disk. We compute an envelope-to-disk mass infall rate of ∼10−6 M ⊙ yr−1 and compare it to the disk-to-star mass accretion rate of ∼10−8 M ⊙ yr−1, from which we infer that the protostellar disk is in a mass buildup phase. At the current mass infall rate, we speculate that soon the disk will become too massive to be gravitationally stable.

Resolved Kennicutt–Schmidt law in two strongly lensed star-forming galaxies at redshift 1

We study the star formation rate (SFR) vs. molecular gas mass (Mmol) scaling relation from hundreds to thousands of parsec in two strongly lensed galaxies at redshift z ∼ 1, the Cosmic Snake and A521. We trace the SFR using extinction-corrected rest-frame UV observations with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), and Mmol using detections of the CO(4–3) line with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). The similar angular resolutions of our HST and ALMA observations of 0.15 − 0.2″ combined with magnifications reaching μ &gt; 20 enable us to resolve structures in the galaxies of sizes lower than 100 pc. These resolutions are close to those of studies of nearby galaxies. This allows us to investigate for the first time the Kennicutt–Schmidt (KS) law (SFR–Mmol surface densities) at different spatial scales, from galactic scales to ∼100 pc scales, in galaxies at z ∼ 1. At integrated scales we find that both galaxies satisfy the KS law defined by galaxies at redshifts between 1 and 2.5. We test the resolved KS (rKS) law in cells of sizes down to 200 pc in the two galaxies. We observe that this relationship generally holds in these z ∼ 1 galaxies, although its scatter increases significantly with decreasing spatial scales. We check the scale dependence of the spatial correlation between the surface densities of SFR and Mmol by focusing on apertures centred on individual star-forming regions and molecular clouds. We conclude that star-forming regions and molecular clouds become spatially de-correlated at ≲1 kpc in the Cosmic Snake, whereas they appear de-correlated at all spatial scales (from 400 pc to 6 kpc) in A521.

The [CII] 158 μm emission line as a gas mass tracer in high redshift quiescent galaxies

A great deal of effort has been made in recent years to probe the gas fraction evolution of massive quiescent galaxies (QGs); however, a clear picture has not yet been established. Recent spectroscopic confirmations at z &gt; 3 offer the chance to measure the residual gas reservoirs of massive galaxies a few hundred Myr after their death and to study how fast quenching proceeds in a highly star-forming Universe. Even so, stringent constraints at z &gt; 2 remain hardly accessible with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) when adopting molecular gas tracers commonly used for the quenched population. In this Letter we propose overcoming this impasse by using the carbon [CII] 158 μm emission line to systematically probe the gaseous budget of unlensed QGs at z &gt; 2.8, when these galaxies could still host non-negligible star formation on an absolute scale and when the line becomes best observable with ALMA (Bands 8 and 7). Predominantly used for star-forming galaxies to date, this emission line is the best choice to probe the gas budget of spectroscopically confirmed QGs at z &gt; 3, reaching 2–4 and 13–30 times deeper than dust continuum emission (ALMA band 7) and CO(2–1)/(1–0) (Very Large Array, VLA, K − Kα bands), respectively, at fixed integration time. Exploiting archival ALMA observations, we place conservative 3σ upper limits on the molecular gas fraction (fmol = MH2/M⋆) of ADF22-QG1 (fmol &lt; 21%) and ZF-COS-20115 (fmol &lt; 3.2%), two of the best-studied high-z QGs in the literature, and GS-9209 (fmol &lt; 72%), the most distant massive QG discovered to date. The deep upper limit found for ZF-COS-20115 is three times lower than previously anticipated for high-z QGs suggesting, at best, the existence of a large scatter in the fmol distribution of the first QGs. Lastly, we discuss the current limitations of the method and propose ways to mitigate some of them by exploiting ALMA bands 9 and 10.

ALMA FIR View of Ultra-high-redshift Galaxy Candidates at z ∼ 11–17: Blue Monsters or Low-z Red Interlopers?

We present Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Band 7 observations of a remarkably bright galaxy candidate at (M UV = −21.6), S5-z17-1, identified in James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) Early Release Observation data of Stephen’s Quintet. We do not detect the dust continuum at 866 μm, ruling out the possibility that S5-z17-1 is a low-z dusty starburst with a star formation rate of ≳30 M ⊙ yr−1. We detect a 5.1σ line feature at 338.726 ± 0.007 GHz exactly coinciding with the JWST source position, with a 2% likelihood of the signal being spurious. The most likely line identification would be [O iii]52 μm at z = 16.01 or [C ii]158 μm at z = 4.61, whose line luminosities do not violate the nondetection of the dust continuum in both cases. Together with three other z ≳ 11–13 candidate galaxies recently observed with ALMA, we conduct a joint ALMA and JWST spectral energy distribution (SED) analysis and find that the high-z solution at z ∼ 11–17 is favored in every candidate as a very blue (UV continuum slope of ≃−2.3) and luminous (M UV ≃ [ − 24:−21]) system. Still, we find in several candidates that reasonable SED fits (Δχ 2 ≲ 4) are reproduced by type II quasar and/or quiescent galaxy templates with strong emission lines at z ∼ 3–5, where such populations predicted from their luminosity functions and EW([O iii]+Hβ) distributions are abundant in survey volumes used for the identification of the z ∼ 11–17 candidates. While these recent ALMA observation results have strengthened the likelihood of the high-z solutions, lower-z possibilities are not completely ruled out in several of the z ∼ 11–17 candidates, indicating the need to consider the relative surface densities of the lower-z contaminants in the ultra-high-z galaxy search.