Association Of The Southeast Asian Nations Research Articles

Review on Greenhouse Gases Emission in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Countries

The Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region is a critical contributor to global development from an environmental perspective. This study has reviewed carbon emissions from energy generation, influence factors from the population, economic growth and renewable energy, emission and energy intensity projection, spatial distribution characteristics, and decarbonization strategy. This work utilizes a comparison methodology between ASEAN countries in the emission intensity and energy intensity in the future projection of electricity conditions in 2030 or 2040, as well as opportunities for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as determined by the national policies of each government. The results show that Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, and Malaysia produce 79.7% of the electricity in the ASEAN region. As a developing country, Indonesia has the largest population and gross domestic product (GDP) but has the highest predicted emission intensity, of 0.97 CO2e/MWh, in 2030. Vietnam is predicted to have an emission intensity of about 3.56t-CO2e/cap and 0.747t-CO2e/GDP in 2030. Vietnam is expected to increase in energy intensity to 1241 MWh/GDP, while Brunei Darussalam has a high energy intensity of 11.35 MWh/cap. However, the capacity of solar power plants (more than 11 GW) and wind-power plants (2384 MW) have generally increased in ASEAN from 2015 to 2019, indicating the positive development of renewable energy source (RES) use. The national policies strongly influence the estimated GHG emission in ASEAN by aggressively replacing fossil fuels with RESs. Support, via government policies, can reduce the cost of electricity generation from RESs is needed to increase and enhance the installment of clean power generation systems. In future work, the research needs to consider the intermittent characteristics of variable RES in power system operation.

Vietnam’s ASEAN chairmanship in 2010 and 2020: outcomes and prospects

Vietnam is a well-recognized member of the Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1995. One of the key priorities of Vietnam’s multifaceted foreign policy is its cooperation with ASEAN and member-states. Vietnam was an ASEAN Chair three times (1998, 2010, and 2020). As an ASEAN Chair, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam proposed a number of different initiatives aimed at ASEAN’s institutional development as well as at strengthening the central role of the Association in the emerging security architecture in the Asia Pacific Region.

Bölge ve Bölgesel Entegrasyon Bağlamında Orta Asya Devletleri’nin Birliği için Bir Model Önerisi

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan have attempted to participate in regional cooperations to serve a variety of purposes of securing their common interest and preserving their new sovereignty in the late 20th century. Establishing regional integration for these states seems popular to continue in the twenty-first century as the leaders of these republics are coordinating policies more frequently and thriving to search ways to consolidate a more developed, law-based and structured regional union. However, although they had already had the understanding and expectation to establish a regional union, they could not establish one which may hitherto bring about practical results and concrete outcomes. Thus, the aim of this article is first to analyze the integration process of Central Asian countries with a regional perspective, and then to purpose a model of Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) to these countries as it may offer useful guidance for them. Central Asia states have geographic, linguistic, historical, cultural and economic affinities for regional integration. The study claims that though limited similarities, the ASEAN experience can be as an example for the Central Asia region due to the components of especially geographical affinity and cultural convergence. Not only the aforementioned components but also having similar issues of economic depression, boundary and water problems, armed conflicts and unresolved interethnic matters with Southeast Asian countries may be examples for strengthening the study’s claim. In this article, there are three themes to be elucidated: first, the meaning of region concept, second, the reasons why these republics have not yet established a sustainable regional union, and finally why the ASEAN integration model is appropriate.

Job that fits for graduates in the Asean integration

Philippines now faces a big challenge with regards to the labor force. The ASEAN Economic Community was made to integrate the economies of the member-countries. The Philippines before was behind academically because of the curriculum used. To address the problem, the Philippines uses the K-12 Program which is an international standard and what the other members of ASEAN use. So, it is important to know what jobs are indemand so that the students will take the course for the specific job. This study is aimed to know the in-demand jobs of the Southeast Asian nations and to help the Filipinos what’s the best career path they should take for a bigger chance of getting employed in 2017. This study is only limited not beyond the year 2017. This study will help job-seekers to what jobs they have the best chance being employed.A quantitative approach was used in this study. Data were acquired from the 10 members of the Association of the Southeast Asian Nations. Those data are the employment, enrolment, and survival rate of the professionals in each country, in which the countries differ. The countries also differ in their supply, skills, wages, and productivity. From all the acquired information, the researchers found out that the Philippines is second in the highest number of unemployed youth and ranks fourth in the employment rate.The 10 countries also have different in-demand jobs. But all in all, the most in-demand job in Southeast Asia is engineering. This is followed by accounting, teaching, nursing, and IT.

Loneliness correlates and associations with health variables in the general population in Indonesia

BackgroundLoneliness has been commonly reported in high-income countries, while less is known about loneliness in Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) member states, in particular in Indonesia.ObjectiveThe aim of the study was to estimate the prevalence of loneliness, its correlates and associations with health variables in a national survey in the general population in Indonesia.MethodsIn the Indonesia Family Life Survey (IFLS-5) in 2014–2015, 31,447 participants 15 years and older (median age 35.0 years, interquartile range = 22.0) were interviewed and examined in a national population-based cross-sectional study. The self-reported prevalence of loneliness, blood pressure, body height and weight, physical and mental health, health behaviour and psychosocial variables were measured. Multinomial logistic regression analyses were used to estimate determinants of loneliness and logistic and linear regression analyses were applied to estimate the associations of loneliness with physical, mental and health risk behaviour variables.ResultsThe self-reported prevalence of loneliness (occasionally or all of the time or 3–7 days per week) was 10.6% (11.0% for females and 10.1% for males), and 8.0% reported sometimes (1–2 days/week) to be lonely. Loneliness was distributed in a slight U-shaped form, with adolescents and the oldest old having the highest prevalence of loneliness. In adjusted multinomial logistic regression analysis, lower education, lower economic status, adverse childhood experiences, having one or more chronic conditions, functional disability and low neighbourhood trust were associated with loneliness. Loneliness was significantly associated with most health variables, including self-reported unhealthy health status (AOR 1.70, CI 1.57, 1.84), cognitive functioning (Beta: − 0.72, CI − 0.90 to − 0.54), having one or more chronic medical conditions (AOR 1.25, CI 1.16, 1.35), having had a stroke (AOR 1.58, CI 1.08, 2.29), depression symptoms (Beta: 5.19, CI 4.98–5.39), sleep disturbance (Beta: 0.34, CI 0.31–0.37), sleep related impairment (Beta: 0.69, CI 0.64–0.73), low life satisfaction (AOR 1.78, CI 1.64, 1.93), out-patient health care utilization in the past 4 weeks (AOR 1.11, CI 1.01, 1.21), current tobacco use (AOR 1.42, CI 1.28, 1.58), and one or more days in the past week soft drink consumption (AOR 1.20, CI 1.10, 1.31).ConclusionLoneliness was found to be prevalent across the life span and was associated with a number of poorer health variables. Several factors associated with loneliness were identified, which warrant further research in Indonesia.

Integrating transportation and economic information for the African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV) risk modelling purposes in the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS) using online data and grey literature

Integrating transportation and economic information for the African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV) risk modelling purposes in the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS) using online data and grey literature

The Philippines’ Foreign Policy Direction: An Assessment of The First Year of President Duterte

President Duterte’s election as the 16th president of the Republic of the Philippines has put the country into the international media limelight. President Duterte’s use of unconventional language in his public speeches, his infamous drug campaign and his being the second head of the state after President Marcos who tried to infuse the idea of an “independent foreign policy” in the conduct of the country’s foreign relations are just some of the reasons for such media attention. Under Duterte’s administration, the Philippines opened up and became friendly with China despite the latter’s “aggressive militarization” in the South China Sea. Along with China, Duterte has also opened a new vista of military cooperation with Russia. This article examines one-year of President Duterte’s foreign policy – vis-à-vis the Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), China, and its traditional ally, the United States. It aims to discuss the direction of Duterte’s Foreign Policy in his first year of presidency and its possible implications for the Philippines’ relations with ASEAN, and the United States.

Bank competition and regional integration: Evidence from ASEAN nations

This study provides a characterization of the Association of the South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) banking system’s competition under the new environment that the implementation of the Financial Integration Framework (AFIF) implies. We focus on the largest banking markets in the region, represented by the ASEAN-5. The period under study is 2007–2016, covering the preparation period of the ASEAN banks to fully implement the new Banking Integration Framework (ABIF) in 2020. Panzar and Rosse non-structural approach is utilised to measure the competition level. Following Goddard and Wilson’s (2009) disequilibrium approach, the test for the dynamic competition measure is also conducted as a robustness check. We examine the evolution of the banking competition by observing the trend of the competition level using a rolling estimation with a 5-year window. This paper also investigates the factors that may influence the competitive conditions, specifically controlling for structural conditions and institutional characteristics. Our main findings confirm that banks operate under monopolistic competition, although there is still a high level of heterogeneity among the ASEAN countries’ banking market and banking integration sure is a challenging objective for the region. Our results reveal a positive relationship between density of demand, concentration and competition.

Hot or not? The role of cycling in ASEAN megacities: Case studies of Bangkok and Manila

ABSTRACTThe Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) recognizes the role of nonmotorized transport for sustainable urban development in its policy framework. National and local policymakers in Thailand and The Philippines, two tropical countries without a tradition of urban cycling, are increasingly paying attention to cycling as well. This article aims to assess the current situation and progress in cycling, using Bangkok and Metropolitan Manila as case study cities, and to describe the necessary conditions for advancing the significance of cycling in tropical megacities. This is done by operationalizing the so-called Technological Innovation Systems (TIS) framework, which has been used in transition studies since 2008, however, never for cycling. As such this article also “tests” this framework for its application in sustainable transportation. The two case studies are characterized with regards to the current role of cycling in the mobility system, its infrastructure, governance system, and existing research on the potential and barriers. We find that TIS can readily be applied to our cases, with the analysis showing that elements such as knowledge development, actor networks, e-bike adoption, infrastructure, resource mobilization and legitimation are not well developed; on the other hand, flat terrain, attention for cycling for health and environment, heavy congestion, expansion of public transport, growing bike industry, active university communities, and the emergence of advocacy coalitions, could open up opportunities for increasing its modal share.

Linking international norms to regions: Mercosur and ASEAN facing the challenge of cultural diversity

http://dx.doi.org/10.5007/2175-7984.2017v16n35p67A Convenção sobre Diversidade de Expressões Culturais (CDCE), adotada pela UNESCO em 2005, tornou-se um dos principais mecanismos dentro da multifacetada governança global das indústrias culturais, estabelecendo novas práticas no setor cultural. O artigo defende uma visão original sobre difusão e implementação de normas, com foco em duas regiões: Mercosul (Mercado Comum do Sul) e ASEAN (Associação das Nações do Sudeste Asiático). Através da análise da transferência da CDCE de nível internacional para as regiões do Mercosul e da ASEAN, o artigo procura explorar quatro questões-chave: por que os atores se envolvem na mudança de normas? Quem são os principais atores no processo de transferência de normas? O que é transferido e por quê? O que restringe ou facilita o processo de transferência de normas?

A case of failed interregionalism? Analyzing the EU-ASEAN free trade agreement negotiations

In 2007, the European Union (EU) and the Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) started interregional negotiations on a free trade agreement, which failed 2 years later. Relying on document analysis and elite interviews with officials from the EU and ASEAN’s members, this article addresses why and the extent to which the interregional negotiations failed. By rooting the theoretical model in a power-based approach, the analysis demonstrates that the EU has attempted to secure its economic and regulatory power in Southeast Asia. In striving for such power, interregionalism was initially the intuitive way because the EU perceived ASEAN as a cohesive bloc. However, the EU’s ambitious vision for comprehensive agreements clashed with the actual heterogeneity of ASEAN member states. The failure of the interregional approach is, thus, a result of the EU’s delicate balance between political and economic interests in Southeast Asia, which it pursues with trade-specific issues.

Liberalizing Trade in Legal Services under Asia-Pacific FTAs: The ASEAN Case

The article examines the liberalization of trade in legal services in the Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and its reform prospects to meet the challenges of multi-jurisdictional practice. It argues that while the ten-country bloc pledges to progressively liberalize the legal sector, ASEAN commitments under free trade agreements (FTAs) constitute merely ‘paper commitments’. To achieve the goal of the ASEAN Economic Community to form a single market and production base, a feasible, incremental roadmap is imperative to integrate the legal services market. The article first analyzes the economic impact of foreign law firms on ASEAN’s legal capacity building and the evolution of emerging ASEAN law. By assessing legal services negotiations under the World Trade Organization, the European Union, and Asia-Pacific FTAs, the article identifies issues of complexity in international arenas. The Singapore experiment further explores the effectiveness of FTAs with Australia and the USA and self-initiated FTA-plus measures such as Joint Law Ventures and Qualifying Foreign Law Practices. These case studies, along with law firms’ operations vis-a-vis regulatory changes, demonstrate the best practices. Finally, the article provides reform proposals that will accelerate the integration of ASEAN’s legal services market and enhance its competitiveness under the multilateral trading system.

Trade in Legal Services Liberalization in Asia-Pacific FTAs: Assessing the Convergence of ASEAN Rules

The article examines the liberalization of trade in legal services in the Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and its reform prospects to meet the challenges of multi-jurisdictional practice. It argues that while the ten-country bloc pledges to progressively liberalize the legal sector, ASEAN commitments under free trade agreements (FTAs) constitute merely paper commitments. To achieve the goal of the ASEAN Economic Community to form a single market and production base, a feasible, incremental roadmap is imperative to integrate the legal services market. The article first analyzes the economic impact of foreign law firms on ASEAN’s legal capacity building and the evolution of emerging ASEAN law. By assessing legal services negotiations under the World Trade Organization, the European Union, and Asian FTAs, the article identifies issues of complexity in international arenas. The Singapore experiment further explores the effectiveness of FTAs with Australia and the United States and self-initiated FTA-plus measures such as Joint Law Ventures and Qualifying Foreign Law Practices. These case studies, along with law firms’ operations vis-a-vis regulatory changes, demonstrate the best practices. Finally, the article provides reform proposals that will accelerate the integration of ASEAN’s legal services market and enhance its competiveness under the multilateral trading system.

Transecting Security and Space in Phnom Penh

Our paper examines everyday interactions of money, power, and security in Cambodia's capital city of Phnom Penh, informed by a series of transects and interviews. When Phnom Penh hosted the Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Summit in April 2012, Prime Minister Hun Sen declared that “Cambodia is not for sale” in an angry exchange with journalists who had quizzed him about China's influence. However, the sale and enclosure of Cambodian land and property have yielded both profit and tensions. These are connected with the meanings and operation of security. The most powerful ‘security’ agency in Phnom Penh is neither wholly ‘public’ nor fully ‘private’, but hybrid; where public police and military personnnel and their equipment are purchased. We argue that this is symptomatic of circulation/operation of state/capital in Cambodia.

Nuclear Power Developments: Could Small Modular Reactor Power Plants be a “Game Changer”? – The ASEAN Perspective

Presently, around 13% of the world's electricity is generated by nuclear. Pro-nuclear opinion is that nuclear power is safe, clean, cost-effective, and should be expanded fast, world-wide, to combat the rise in carbon emissions. The contra opinion is that nuclear power is flawed - primarily because it is seen as not safe enough, especially after the Fukushima nuclear disaster. Other objections come from concerns about security, large capital investments, and negative public perceptions. The opinions towards nuclear are thus sharply polarized. Several countries have already begun phasing out nuclear power after being committed to it for many years. However, it is arguably unsustainable to completely rule out nuclear from the energy mix, especially in the case of fast developing economies in the Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Presently, there is renewed interest in the use of small and medium sized reactors (SMRs) of sizes 25 - 150MW. Their small size and modularity in design raises the expectation of SMRs being a “game changer” for the nuclear industry in the coming decades. This paper provides a rationale on the use of SMRs and their relevance to ASEAN. We will consider what is meant by “safe design”, why SMRs have a better possibility than the traditional large plant of achieving it, and what the suggested “critical success factors” are.

Economic relations between China and ASEAN: 1970‐2010

PurposeThis purpose of this paper is to review the progressive development in bilateral trade and investments between China and the Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1970. China's economic reform has served as a great incentive for ASEAN countries to engage in continuous political and economic dialogue with the economic giant as it is considered as one of the largest, growing markets in the world. The political and economic efforts initiated by ASEAN have sought to affirm an outward‐looking ASEAN in playing a pivotal role in the international community and advancing ASEAN's common interests, which include economic trade with China as regional partner.Design/methodology/approachA review of the literature based on secondary data provides the analysis of the stages of the Chinese political and economic reforms that had brought about improvement in the economic relationship between China and ASEAN.FindingsThe findings comprise reports that highlight the promising trend in investment relations between China and ASEAN.Research limitations/implicationsThe paper highlights the need for further in‐depth analysis of Chinese political and economic reforms that will have a significant impact on regional trade and investment in the Asia‐Pacific region.Practical implicationsThe paper will allow international managers of multinational enterprises to have a better appreciation of the political and economic developments in China and to consider options to enhance greater business partnerships with Chinese corporations.Originality/valueThe literature gap in this particular area of study presents an opportunity to explore new developments in the Chinese Government's economic reforms.

Governance, Science Policy and Regions: An Introduction

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Acknowledgements Special thanks to Andy Pike of CURDS, University of Newcastle, for his role as overseeing editor and for critical insights in the review process. Thanks also to Gail Welsh for her invaluable assistance in bringing this special issue to fruition. Notes 1. The Building Science Regions project, as a collaboration between SURF and CURDS at the University of Newcastle, developed case studies of the North West and North East of England, Alsace (France), North Rhine Westphalia (Germany) and Catalonia (Spain). 2. With this aim in mind, the reader's attention is drawn to a special issue of Regions, the newsletter of the Regional Studies Association, also edited by the present editors and aimed at a non-specialist academic and policy audience on the theme of ‘Building Science Regions and Cities’ (August 2006, No. 263). 3. Mercosur or the Southern Common Market is a Regional Trade Agreement between Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Venezuela (joined 2006) founded in 1991. The Association of the South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) was originally established in 1967 but more recently has consolidated its influence through the establishment of three pillars: the Security Community, the Economic Community and the Socio-Cultural Community. It has ten members (Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam). The North American Free Trade Agreement was established in 1994 between the USA, Canada and Mexico. 4. Examples include the conflict over the DIAMOND synchrotron radiation source in 1999/2000 between the North West and South East of England; efforts by Yorkshire and Humber Development Agency to secure the European Spallation Source in the face of competition from other European (largely German) regions; and debate over the location of the International Thermonuclear Reactor between the Spanish region of Catalonia and the French region of Provence–Alpes–Côtes-d'Azur. In each of these cases conflict has emerged over the location of major scientific facilities with regions competing for the potential to host and co-fund infrastructural investments.

Selected Human Rights Documents

Asia-Pacific Journal on Human Rights and the Law (2004)2:79-98. © 2005 Koninklijke Brill NV. Printed in the Netherlands S ELECTED H UMAN R IGHTS D OCUMENTS ASEAN Declaration a gainst Trafficking in Persons Particularly Women and Children WE, the Heads of States/Governments of Brunei Darussalam, the Kingdom of Cambodia, the Republic of Indonesia, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, the Union of Myanmar, the Republic of the Philippines, the Republic of Singapore, the Kingdom of Thailand, the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, members of the Association of the Southeast Asian Nations, hereinafter referred to as ASEAN, REAFFIRMING the Ha Noi

Movement of forest products within BIMP-EAGA sub-regions of ASEAN

Brunei Darussalam, Kalimantan and Sulawesi of Indonesia, Sabah and Sarawak of Malaysia, and the southern regions of the Philippines formed the East ASEAN Growth Area (BIMP-EAGA). It is the third sub-region in the Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) slated for development following SIJORI and IMT-GT. Blessed with a huge reserve of natural and human resources, as producers the BIMP-EAGA member countries constitute a mutually beneficial network for one another. The impressive exports and intra-regional trade of the sub-regions were manifested as a potential powerhouse for the Asian economic boom. In an effort to make ASEAN a Free Trade Area (AFTA), two institutional instruments of economic cooperation the ASEAN Preferential Trade Arrangement and the Common Effective Preferential Tariffs scheme have been developed. The production, consumption and trade of forest products revealed the extent of protectionism in the sub-regions. Existing barriers and logistic infrastructure supports the free flow of goods and services were identified and the industrial investment opportunities were matched to the level of contention and compromise among the members. This paper was prepared to present the status quo and to gain supports at the fifth BIMP-EAGA senior official and ministerial forestry meeting on 4 July, 1996 at Davao City, Philippines. Considering the region as one big production and distribution center, the barriers and necessary logistic supports were to be tackled by consensus. Without committed and concerted efforts of both the governments and the private sectors toward alleviating the impediments and enhancing free movement of resources, the realization of AFTA is just another economic myth!

ASEAN: An Untapped Export Market for Finland and Sweden?

The purpose of this article is to determine exports of Finland and Sweden to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and to compare actual exports to the potential, in order to see whether there remain untapped possibilities in the region. This was done both for the time (more exactly, for 1995) and for the next ten-year period, up till 2005. Introduction During the last few decades the member countries of the Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)' have displayed extremely high growth rates. This, in addition to the fact that a formal integration process has been initiated in the region (for a stock-taking, see ASEAN Secretariat 1997), has recently brought ASEAN into the focus of interest as a market and host of foreign direct investment. Despite the present economic downturn in Asia, ASEAN with its more than 450 million people remains an attractive market, especially in the longer run. As for the Nordic countries, increasing interest in ASEAN can clearly be noticed as well. While the economic relationships between ASEAN and the Nordic countries take many different forms, this article concentrates on the role of ASEAN as an market for Finland and Sweden. A more or less implicit idea in these countries seems to be that ASEAN represents a large market which has not yet been fully utilized and, especially, that its will grow rapidly in the future. The main purpose of this article is to determine exports for Finland and Sweden to the markets of ASEAN and to compare actual exports to the to see whether there remain untapped possibilities in the region. This type of question has not been addressed much in applied international economics, perhaps due to measurement problems. Export potential is, of course, an elusive concept which has to be defined operationally in order to be meaningful. In this article, export potential stands for exports predicted by some kind of model. (I used several alternatives in this work.) The article deals with the in both a static and a dynamic version. On the one hand, I make an attempt to evaluate whether there is untapped at the moment (i.e. in 1995); on the other hand, I try to assess how this is likely to develop over time, extending the time horizon to 2005. This article starts out with a descriptive view of the exports of Finland and Sweden to ASEAN. After this, I evaluate the present with the aid of the so-called trade intensity index, a rough method of assessing unused potential. Then a causal model of the gravity type is estimated, and the fitted values of this model are taken as values. Possible untapped exports can then be derived by comparing those values and actual values. Next, attention is focused on the long run orientation. To provide a benchmark, a log-linear trend of Finnish and Swedish exports to ASEAN was estimated and extrapolated to 2005. Finally I utilized the results of the gravity model, obtaining estimates of the exports in 2005 by inserting forecast values of the explanatory variables. Discussion of the results concludes the article. Of ASEAN's present member countries, Myanmar was excluded due to data problems while Laos was included despite the fact that the country became a member of the organization only in 1997. Both those cases, in fact, make little difference for the broad picture since Finnish and Swedish trade is quite insignificant with both Laos and Myanmar. Finnish and Swedish exports to ASEAN In the case of both Finland and Sweden, exports to ASEAN increased rapidly through the late 1980s and early 1990s but from a rather low starting level. In 1985 the share of ASEAN was only 0.7 per cent for Finland and 1.6 per cent for Sweden, increasing to 3.5 per cent for Finland and 3. …