Ecosystem Health Assessment Research Articles

Towards Sustainable Rural Development: Assessment Spatio-Temporal Evolution of Rural Ecosystem Health through Integrating Ecosystem Integrity and SDGs

Rural ecosystem health (REH) serves as an effective metric for assessing the damage degree and stability state within rural systems and their components. It reflects the interaction and the balance among rural subsystems, emphasizing the harmonious development of resources, agriculture, environment, economy, and society that are fundamental to sustainable rural development. Most regional-scale ecosystem health assessments primarily focus on either the natural state of the ecosystem or external disturbances affecting it, often neglecting human ecological systems characterized by economic and social dimensions. Taking Chongqing as an example, we established an improved REH assessment framework by integrating ecological integrity from the perspective of a social-economy-natural compound ecosystem. Furthermore, we innovatively incorporated the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) into the formulation of the REH indicator system to quantitatively elucidate the spatiotemporal characteristics. The results indicated that: (1) The REH in Chongqing exhibited an evolutionary pattern characterized by a subsequent rise, maintaining values between 0.363–0.872 from 2000 to 2018. This trend reflected a distinct two-stage development characteristic, with the rural socio-economic subsystem contributing the most at 33.36%, followed closely by the rural environmental subsystem at 27.84%; (2) In 2018, the REH across the 36 districts and counties in Chongqing displayed spatial differentiation patterns described as “collapse in the west, high levels in the northeast, and localized surges”. The areas ranked from smallest to largest REH were metropolitan, western, southeastern, and northeastern areas; (3) Four levels (e.g., disease, single health, compound health, and comprehensive health) and twelve sub-levels of REH were defined using a dominant factors method. Finally, we analyzed the driving factors from four aspects of urbanization development: policy regulation, urban-rural factors flow, and regional differences. We also proposed differentiated planning and policies for sustainable rural development in Chongqing.

Emergy-Based Evaluation of Xiaolangdi Reservoir’s Impact on the Ecosystem Health and Services of the Lower Yellow River

The disturbance in river ecosystems caused by reservoirs and dams has become a critical topic, attracting increasing attention. However, the extent to which reservoir and dam construction and operation impact downstream river ecosystem health and ecosystem service functions is not fully understood. This research examines the Xiaolangdi Reservoir and the Lower Yellow River (LYR) ecosystem in China as a case study. We analyzed the complex material and energy flows in the LYR ecosystem using emergy theory and developed a set of emergy-based indicators for the quantitative assessment of river ecosystem health and services under reservoir operation interference. The results indicate that the total natural capital and environmental endowments of the LYR ecosystem have remained relatively stable after the operation of the Xiaolangdi Reservoir, with an increase in renewable emergy input. The ecosystem’s vigor decreased slightly, while the biomass emergy diversity index remained stable. However, the total emergy inputs increased significantly, with external feedback inputs becoming the most important emergy source for the LYR ecosystem. The resilience of the LYR ecosystem improved, with a significant increase in emergy density and a decrease in the emergy sustainability index. These findings suggest that although the river ecosystem continues to provide supporting services to human society, the extent of these services has diminished compared to pre-perturbation levels. In this research, a methodology for analyzing the impact of key reservoir operations on the ecosystem health and services of a large river is proposed to provide support for large river sustainable development studies.

Evaluating Water Quality through Macroinvertebrate Diversity and Physicochemical Parameters in the Thamirabarani River Basin

<p style="margin-top:13px; text-align:justify"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:115%"><span style="font-family:Arial,"sans-serif""><span lang="EN" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="line-height:115%"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"">Aquatic ecosystems in the Thamirabarani River Basin, Tamil Nadu, India, are facing increasingly complex challenges due to climate change, particularly concerning water temperature and dissolved oxygen levels. This study delves into the intricate relationship between these variables and their profound implications for freshwater biodiversity. The rising temperatures and declining dissolved oxygen levels pose escalating threats to the health of aquatic organisms and the stability of ecosystems. To tackle this issue, a hybrid methodology that integrates remote sensing and field data is proposed to calculate the Water Quality Index (WQI) and comprehensively assess ecosystem health. Remote sensing data offer valuable spatial insights, while field measurements ensure accuracy, resulting in robust findings. The study uncovers a significant negative correlation between water temperature and dissolved oxygen levels, highlighting the adverse effects of warming waters on aquatic habitats. Moreover, habitat fragmentation exacerbates climate stressors, adding further challenges to freshwater biodiversity conservation. The findings underscore the urgent need for conservation and adaptive management strategies, including temperature regulation, riparian vegetation enhancement, nutrient pollution management, and habitat connectivity preservation. By implementing these measures, biodiversity loss in freshwater ecosystems can be minimized, ensuring their resilience in the face of ongoing climate change. </span></span></span></span></span></span></p>

The assembly and dynamics of ecological communities in an ever‐changing world

AbstractAlternative perspectives on the maintenance of biodiversity and the assembly of ecological communities suggest that both processes cannot be investigated simultaneously. In this concept and synthesis, we challenge this view by presenting major theoretical advances in structural stability and permanence theory. These advances, which provide complementary views, allow studying the short‐ and long‐term dynamics of ecological communities as changes in species richness, composition, and abundance. Here, the global attractor, technically named informational structure (IS), is the central element to construct from information of species' intrinsic growth rates and their strength and sign of interactions. The global attractor has four main properties: (1) It contains all the limits of what is feasible and unfeasible of the dynamical behavior of an ecological system, therefore, (2) it provides a thorough characterization of all combinations of species' richness and composition in which species can coexist (i.e., feasible and stable equilibrium), (3) as well as all connections (paths) of assembly between coexisting communities. Importantly, (4) such topology of coexisting communities and their connections changes when environmental (abiotic and biotic) variation affects the ability of species to grow and interact with others. Overall, these four properties allow switching from a traditional evaluation of species coexistence at equilibrium to a much more realistic nonequilibrium perspective where changes in the structure of the global attractor underlie the transient ecological dynamics. Several fields in ecology can benefit from the study of an IS. For instance, it can serve to evaluate community responses after the end of a perturbation, to design restoration trajectories, to study the consequences of biological invasions on the persistence of native species within communities, or to assess ecosystem health status. We illustrate this latter possibility with empirical observations of 7 years in Mediterranean annual grasslands. We document that extremely wet or dry years generate ISs supporting few coexisting communities and few assembly paths. The remaining communities distinguish winners from losers of ongoing climate change and indicate the limits to future community assembly opportunities. A fully tractable operational framework is readily available to understand and predict the assembly and dynamics of ecological communities in an ever‐changing world.

Integrating ecosystem stress into the assessment of ecosystem health in karst areas and exploring its driving factors

Accurately evaluating the degree of ecosystem health and comprehending its drivers are of crucial importance for ecosystem management and restoration in fragile ecoregions. Adopting an ecosystem stress perspective, this investigation scientifically diagnosed ecosystem health in Guizhou Province, a typical karst fragile ecological area, by developing a “Vigor-Organization-Resilience-Stress” (VORS) regional ecosystem health assessment framework. The principal driving factors and their spatio-temporal heterogeneity influencing ecosystem health in karst regions were investigated using geographic detectors and geographically and temporally weighted regression. Our findings indicated that: (1) The ecosystem health in Guizhou province presents a spatial distribution pattern of lower in the western region and higher in the eastern region, and the average ecosystem health index (EHI) in 2000, 2010 and 2020 is 0.194, 0.246 and 0.254 respectively, indicating that the overall ecosystem health level in Guizhou province has improved with the passage of time. (2) The spatiotemporal variation of ecosystem stress in Guizhou Province is substantial; the pressure associated with land use is projected to increase, whereas the intensity of stress attributed to rocky desertification and soil erosion is anticipated to diminish over time. (3) The primary determinants influencing the health of ecosystems in karst environments are the social and economic elements. These factors progressively amplify their effect on ecosystem health as time passes. The new assessment framework we have established includes ecosystem integrity and ecological threats faced by the ecosystem, which provides a new perspective for understanding the complex internal characteristics of karst areas and the coupling relationship between human and natural ecosystems. The results of this study can provide scientific reference for land use and ecological management policies in fragile ecological areas.

Evolution of hydrochemical characteristics and the influence of environmental background in the Hailar River basin, China.

Understanding the evolution of hydrochemical characteristics in river systems is essential for environmental assessment and water resource management. This study explores the spatiotemporal distribution and the determinants of hydrochemical characteristics in the Hailar River basin, China, over an extensive period. Our results revealed that CODMn and CODCr were the primary concerns for long-term river management, with exceedance rates of 42.92% and 50.62%, respectively. These exceedances were predominantly driven by interactions between riparian soils and surface water, rather than anthropogenic pollution, as suggested by the strong correlations between dissolved organic carbon and soil water-extractable organic carbon, and the limited human footprint in this region. Piper trilinear and Gibbs diagram analysis further revealed that long-term rack weathering shaped the basin's hydrochemical characteristics, resulting in distinct HCO3--Ca2+ and HCO3--Ca2+-Na+ signatures. In addition, APCS-MLR analysis identified that elevated of CODMn and CODCr levels were mainly attributed to the interactions with adjacent soils, which are extensively covered by forests and grasslands. In contrast, leaching and migration processes contributed significantly on total dissolved solids and total phosphorus. The study also found that environmental self-purification processes played a key role in regulating Fe concentrations. This investigation provides a nuanced understanding of the environmental background's influence on hydrochemistry and dissolved organic matter (DOM) in the Hailar River basin, which offers valuable insights and methodologies for the rational assessment of water quality and aquatic ecosystem health in similar riverine systems.

Spatio-temporal variation in mangrove crab diversity in five estuaries of Kerala, India

The present study investigated the community structure and faunal composition of mangrove crab assemblage of five estuaries in Kerala. Mangrove crabs were collected from different estuaries namely Puthuvype, Ayiramthengu, Dhalavapuram, Pullichira and Kottaramthuruth from January 2015 to December 2015. The numerical abundance was directly enumerated by handpicking crabs from the estuarial mangrove region from 100×100 cm quadrats from the estuarine mangrove regions. Thirteen brachyuran crab species were identified across the five estuaries, along with environmental and sedimentological parameters. Various diversity indices were calculated for spatial temporal comparisons. The study revealed that four of the estuaries exhibited similar crab species diversity, while Pullichira differed, displaying the lowest diversity due to habitat characteristics such as small islands or sand dunes and shallow depth. The calculated indices for species diversity, richness, dominance, evenness, taxonomic and phylogenetic relationships provide insights into the spatio-temporal variations of mangrove crab diversity. This study serves as a benchmark reference for future studies in these estuaries, and further monitoring and assessment of mangrove ecosystem health could support the development of ecosystem-based management strategies for deteriorating mangrove ecosystems.

Health assessment of mangrove ecosystem of natural protected areas in Guangdong Province, China

Health assessment of mangrove ecosystem of natural protected areas in Guangdong Province, China

Active mussel biomonitoring for the health status assessment of the Western Mediterranean Sea

The Western Mediterranean coast is under the influence of anthropogenic pressures, including land use, increasing amounts of dangerous waste and habitat destruction. In 2021, the French RINBIO network (http://www.ifremer.fr/envlit/) originally dedicated to assess chemical contamination in the region, focused on biological effects produced by contaminants and the interaction with natural variability in mussels using an active caging strategy. Cell and tissue level biomarkers were applied for 17 sampling sites divided in three sub-regions categorized by different environmental conditions. Results provide critical information for ecosystem health assessment using mussels as sentinel species in the Western Mediterranean Sea. The influence of natural and confounding factors (trophic condition, reproductive cycle, caging strategy), on biological responses to mild chemical contamination, was discussed and discriminated for health status assessment. Results provide valuable data available as reference values for the assessment of biomarkers and histopathological alterations for large-scale active biomonitoring campaigns in the Western Mediterranean Sea.

Ecosystem health assessment of the largest lake wetland in the Yellow River basin using an improved vigor-organization-resilience-services model

Wuliangsu Lake is the largest lake wetland in the Yellow River basin, it is the Northern Sand Belt of China, which is essential to maintaining ecological security in northern China and the areas downstream. With the increasing environmental problems, the basin has become a sensitive and complex geographical unit, and a better understanding of the level of ecosystem health in the basin is helpful for policymakers in developing measures for ecological restoration and eco-space management. In this study, we proposed an improved VORS model containing ecosystem vigor, organization, resilience and services to assess the ecosystem health in the Wuliangsu Lake Basin in 2000, 2011, and 2022. To improve spatial precision, the study area was partitioned into grids measuring 2 km × 2 km each. The results indicated that: (1) the ecosystem health showed a slight increase trend, which indicated by the increase level grids reached 94 % in 2000–2022 change. (2) The reduction in vegetation cover decreased the ecosystem vigor, which was indicated by the weak level increased from 22 % in 2000 to 73 % in 2022. Ecosystem structure becomes more complex enhanced the ecosystem organization, the value increased from 0.3 to 0.6 in 2000 to 0.6–0.8 in 2022. Ecosystem resilience slightly declined in 2011 and 2022, ecosystem services were relatively stable but were dominated by weak levels. (3) The majority land use type in the study area is farmland, and the ecosystem vigor decreases as the area of grassland decreases to farmland in these 22 years. The ecosystem’s structure was enhanced and the land use structure was progressively brought into balance. Changes in all four parameters of ecosystem health assessment are related to land use, and changes in ecosystem health are likewise related to land use changes. The improved VORS model constructed for the Wuliangsu Lake Basin objectively reflect the basin’s state of ecosystem health, and provide a reference for ecological restoration and basin regional planning.

Assessment of wetland ecosystem health in Rarh Region, India through P-S-R (pressure-state-response) model

The current study attempted to assess wetland ecosystem health (EH) in the Murshidabad district's Rarh tract using the P-S-R (Pressure-State-Response) model and machine learning (ML) algorithms and validated it with a field-based validation approach as well as conventional validation approaches. To assess the ecosystem's health, 27 metrics were used to monitor the wetlands' pressure, state, and response. All of the models found that 46.1 % of wetlands in strong EH zones have transformed to 11.41 % in relatively fragile EH zones during the previous thirty years, demonstrating a progressive loss of EH quality throughout larger wetland areas. All of the applied models were deemed to be acceptable based on the results of the model validation process, however, the Random Forest (RF) model performed exceptionally well. The deterioration of EH in the wetlands happened due to the rapid expansion of settlement areas and agricultural land. So, the findings of the study deepen our knowledge about EH in the Rarh tract's wetlands, assisting decision-makers in creating sustainable wetland management strategies.

Ecosystem Health Assessment of the Manas River Basin: Application of the CC-PSR Model Improved by Coupling Coordination Degree

Ecosystem Health Assessment of the Manas River Basin: Application of the CC-PSR Model Improved by Coupling Coordination Degree

Evolving multispectral sensor configurations using genetic programming for estuary health monitoring

ABSTRACT Assessing ecosystem health on a large scale is crucial for a wide range of management and regulatory decisions. Technologies such as hyperspectral imaging allow noninvasive and rapid estimation of key attributes based on observed reflectance. However, these images are high-dimensional and real-world applications require models based on fewer wavelengths. This paper proposes a new wavelength selection and feature extraction method for hyperspectral image analysis based on genetic programming to automatically select key wavelength regions and informative image features. A dataset of hyperspectral images of sediment in the field was collected and paired with ground-truth measurements of the sediment porosity and organic matter content. Two new program structures were proposed to construct feature extraction trees from either the mean reflectance spectra (spectra-based) or full hyperspectral images (image-based). SVR models were constructed to predict attributes based on the extracted features. Various regression models were used to predict the porosity and organic matter content. Full-wavelength models were constructed to reliably predict the organic matter content. The proposed spectra-based genetic programming solutions show competitive results compared to common wavelength selection methods, such as SPA, CARS, and RC. Finally, the best-evolved solution was applied to predict sediment organic matter content across all collected images.

Assessing ecosystem health: A preliminary investigation of the gosikhurd dam ecosystem structure and functioning, an appraisal based on ecological modelling, India.

This study aims to comprehensively understand the Gosikhurd Dam ecosystem (GDE) ecosystem by employing the Ecopath with Ecosim software (version 6.6.5) to construct a trophic mass balancing model. This model consisted of 16 functional groups of organisms, and their interactions and trophic levels were explored. The study focuses on various performance indicators to assess the ecosystem's maturity and complexity. To achieve these objectives, monthly fish samples were collected from June 2022 to May 2023. Performance indicators such as the connectance index (CI), system omnivory index (SOI), Finn's cycling index (FCI), mean path length (FML), ascendency, overhead, and Shannon diversity index were calculated to assess ecosystem maturity and complexity. The Finn's cycling index (FCI) and the mean path length (FML) were calculated as 1.81 and 2.20, respectively, indicating the ecosystem's responsiveness to environmental changes and overall system health and stability. Ascendency and overhead values were also analysed, with ascendency being relatively higher (41.58%), reflecting a system that utilises less than half of its total capacity. The overhead value (58.42%) indicated that the ecosystem is relatively stable and capable of adapting to external perturbations. Furthermore, the Shannon diversity index was 1.67, illustrating less diversity and validating the ecosystem's immaturity. The study identifies critical species and their roles in shaping the ecosystem dynamics, highlighting the importance of zooplankton, zoobenthos, and tilapia as keystone species. These indices propound that GDE is in its developmental stage and lacks complexity compared to mature ecosystems. The findings provide valuable insights into the current state of the ecosystem and can guide future management and conservation efforts.

Zooplankton functional diversity as a bioindicator of freshwater ecosystem health across land use gradient

Zooplankton are critical indicators of pressures impacting freshwater ecosystems. We analyzed the response of zooplankton communities across different sub-catchment types—headwaters, natural, urban, urban-agricultural, and agricultural—within the Łyna river–lake system in Northern Poland. Using taxonomic groups and functional traits (body size, feeding strategies), we applied Partial Least Squares Regression (PLS-R) to elucidate the relationships between environmental conditions, land use, and zooplankton metacommunity structure. Two-Way Cluster Analysis (TWCA) identified local subsets with characteristic patterns, while Indicator Species Analysis (ISA) determined area-specific taxa. The natural river zone exhibited significant habitat heterogeneity and feeding niches, whereas urban areas created functional homogenization of zooplankton, dominated by small, broad-diet microphages. Agricultural areas promoted diversity among large filter feeders (Crustacea), active suctors (Rotifera), and amoebae (Protozoa). However, intensified agricultural activities, substantially diminished the zooplankton population, biomass, taxonomic richness, and overall ecosystem functionality. The impact of land cover change is more pronounced at small-scale sub-catchments than at the catchment level as a whole. Therefore, assessing these impacts requires detailed spatial and temporal analysis at the sub-catchment level to identify the most affected areas. This study introduces a new sub-catchment-based perspective on ecosystem health assessment and underscores the zooplankton's role as robust indicators of ecological change.

Driving Analysis and Multi Scenario Simulation of Ecosystem Carbon Storage Changes Based on the InVEST-PLUS Coupling Model: A Case Study of Jianli City in the Jianghan Plain of China

The carbon storage capacity of terrestrial ecosystems serves as a crucial metric for assessing ecosystem health and their resilience to climate change. By evaluating the effects of land use alterations on this storage, carbon management strategies can be improved, thereby promoting carbon reduction and sequestration. While county-level cities are pivotal to ecological conservation and high-quality development, they often face developmental challenges. Striking a balance between economic growth and meeting peak carbon emissions and carbon neutrality objectives is particularly challenging. Consequently, there is an urgent need to bolster research into carbon storage management. The study focuses on Jianli City, employing the InVEST model and land use data to examine the response patterns of land use changes and terrestrial system carbon storage from 2000 to 2020. Using the PLUS model, the study simulated the land use and carbon storage in Jianli City for the year 2035 under three scenarios: Natural Development scenario, Urban Expansion scenario, and Ecology and food security scenario. Our findings indicate the following: (1) Between 2000 and 2020, significant shifts in land use were observed in Jianli City. These changes predominantly manifested as the interchange between Cropland and Water areas and the enlargement of impervious surfaces, leading to a decrease of 691,790.27 Mg in carbon storage. (2) Under the proposed scenarios—Natural Development scenario, Urban Expansion scenario, and Ecology and food security scenario—the estimated carbon storage capacities in Jianli City were 39.95 Tg, 39.90 Tg, and 40.14 Tg, respectively. When compared with the 2020 data, all these estimates showed an increase. In essence, our study offers insights into optimizing land use structures from a carbon storage standpoint to ensure stability in Jianli’s carbon storage levels while mitigating the risks associated with carbon fixation. This has profound implications for the harmonious evolution of regional eco-economies.

Ecosystem Health Assessment in India for Mainstreaming Global Biodiversity Framework Headline Indicator and Prioritising Conservation Action

Ecosystem Health Assessment in India for Mainstreaming Global Biodiversity Framework Headline Indicator and Prioritising Conservation Action

Assessing Ecosystem Health: A Comparative Study Using Water Quality Index Analysis across Ten Lotic System in the Cross River System

This review synthesizes findings from 10 scientific publications utilizing the weighted arithmetic Water Quality Index (WQI) to assess the status of diverse water bodies (Ikpa River, Lower Enyong Creek, Nwaniba River, Imo River, Etim Ekpo River, Lower Qua Iboe River, Ibeno Estuary, Cross River, Ikot Ebak River and Oboroenyin River) all within the Cross River System. The Analysis reveals that 6 out of 10 sampled water bodies are moderately polluted, while the remaining 4 exhibit slight pollution levels. These findings underscore significant concerns regarding water quality degradation, predominantly attributed to industrial effluents, agricultural runoff and urban contaminants. The WQI proves effective in consolidating multiple water quality parameters into a comprehensive index, facilitating a holistic assessment of pollution levels and guiding management strategies. Moving forward, concerted efforts are imperative to enhance monitoring efforts, implement stringent regulatory measures, and adopt sustainable practices to safeguard freshwater resources globally. This review underscores the urgency of integrated approaches to mitigate pollution and ensure resilience of aquatic ecosystems and public health.

Distinct ecological niches and community dynamics: understanding free-living and particle-attached bacterial communities in an oligotrophic deep lake.

Oligotrophic deep-water lakes are unique and sensitive ecosystems with limited nutrient availability. Understanding bacterial communities within these lakes is crucial for assessing ecosystem health, biogeochemical cycling, and responses to environmental changes. In this study, we investigated the seasonal and vertical dynamics of both free-living (FL) and particle-attached (PA) bacteria in Lake Fuxian, a typical oligotrophic deep freshwater lake in southeast China. Our findings revealed distinct seasonal and vertical dynamics of FL and PA bacterial communities, driven by similar physiochemical environmental factors. PA bacteria exhibited higher α- and β-diversity and were enriched with Proteobacteria, Cyanobacteria, Firmicutes, Patescibacteria, Planctomycetota, and Verrucomicrobiota, while FL bacteria were enriched with Actinobacteria and Bacteroidota. FL bacteria showed enrichment in putative functions related to chemoheterotrophy and aerobic anoxygenic photosynthesis, whereas the PA fraction was enriched with intracellular parasites (mainly contributed by Rickettsiales, Chlamydiales, and Legionellales) and nitrogen metabolism functions. Deterministic processes predominantly shaped the assembly of both FL and PA bacterial communities, with stochastic processes playing a greater role in the FL fraction. Network analysis revealed extensive species interactions, with a higher proportion of positively correlated edges in the PA network, indicating mutualistic or cooperative interactions. Cyanobium, Comamonadaceae, and Roseomonas were identified as keystone taxa in the PA network, underscoring potential cooperation between autotrophic and heterotrophic bacteria in organic particle microhabitats. Overall, the disparities in bacterial diversity, community composition, putative function, and network characteristics between FL and PA fractions highlight their adaptation to distinct ecological niches within these unique lake ecosystems.IMPORTANCEUnderstanding the diversity of microbial communities, their assembly mechanisms, and their responses to environmental changes is fundamental to the study of aquatic microbial ecology. Oligotrophic deep-water lakes are fragile ecosystems with limited nutrient resources, rendering them highly susceptible to environmental fluctuations. Examining different bacterial types within these lakes offers valuable insights into the intricate mechanisms governing community dynamics and adaptation strategies across various scales. In our investigation of oligotrophic deep freshwater Lake Fuxian in China, we explored the seasonal and vertical dynamics of two bacterial types: free-living (FL) and particle-attached (PA). Our findings unveiled distinct patterns in the diversity, composition, and putative functions of these bacteria, all shaped by environmental factors. Understanding these subtleties provides insight into bacterial interactions, thereby influencing the overall ecosystem functioning. Ultimately, our research illuminates the adaptation and roles of FL and PA bacteria within these unique lake environments, contributing significantly to our broader comprehension of ecosystem stability and health.

Ecosystem health assessment of East Kolkata Wetlands, India: Implications for environmental sustainability

The East Kolkata Wetlands (EKW) in Kolkata, India, span 12,500 ha and are a vital ecological zone providing several benefits, including water purification, flood control, and biodiversity support. This study investigated land use and land cover (LULC) alterations in the EKW from 1991 to 2023, using a random forest (RF) machine learning model. Significant LULC changes were observed over the 32 years, with wetland areas decreasing from 91.2 km2 in 1991 to 33.4 km2 in 2023, reflecting substantial habitat loss and reduced ecosystem services. Conversely, agricultural land expanded from 27.8 km2 to 58.7 km2, driven by economic and food production needs, and built-up areas increased dramatically from 0.2 km2 to 10.5 km2, indicating rapid urbanization. This study evaluated the health, resilience, and ecosystem functionality of EKW by analysing human-induced land use changes and using ecological indicators and landscape metrics. Landscape and class level metrics such as PLAND, largest patch index (LPI), total edge (TE), edge density (ED), number of patches (NP), and patch density (PD) were used to analyse the spatiotemporal dynamics of the wetlands. This study revealed a significant increase in fragmentation, with the number of patches increasing from 2689 in 1991 to 4532 in 2023, despite a consistent decrease in core wetland areas. Ecosystem health indicators, such as the ecosystem structure index (ESI) and landscape deviation degree (LDD), were used to assess landscape metrics and fragmentation changes. The ESI and other metrics revealed significant temporal fluctuations, providing insights into landscape structure, connectivity, and heterogeneity. The ESI improved from 0.87 in 1991 to 1.03 in 2023, indicating enhanced connectivity and diversity. Conversely, the LDD increased from 20.6% to 56.85%, indicating a shift towards impervious surfaces. The vegetation productivity and ecosystem health index (EHI) decreased, indicating biodiversity loss and reduced carbon sequestration. The EHI also dropped from 0.67 to 0.55, signifying ongoing environmental stress. This study emphasizes the need for conservation efforts to maintain the ecological integrity of the EKW amidst urbanization and land use changes and recommends a balanced approach for sustainable urban development and enhanced wetland resilience.