Assam Research Articles

Infant Mortality among the Tea Garden Workers in Upper Assam: Insights from a Field Survey

Infant mortality rate is an important indicator that reflects not only the health status of the infant but also the well-being of society as a whole. The north-eastern state of Assam is one of the states having the highest number of maternal and infant deaths within the country. For the first time, infant mortality in Assam registered a decline to 31.9 compared to the national average of 35.2 per 1,000 live births (NFHS-5). Though the overall rank of the state in terms of infant mortality has improved (from the 34th position to the 25th position), it is not enough and is not evenly distributed across the communities within the state. Human rights violations are particularly prominent among the tea garden workers of Assam and are mostly seen against the Adivasi children and woman, which is reflected by high maternal and infant deaths. The study aims to determine the factors responsible for infant mortality among tea garden workers by using primary data collected from 300 women workers across tea gardens in the Sonitpur and Tinsukia districts of Upper Assam. The binary logistic regression method is used for the analysis. It was observed that among the six probable factors, namely educational qualifications of the mother, marriage age of the mother, daily working hours, daily wage as tea garden labour, total number of births and the source of drinking water, the following three factors—namely the total number of births, age at marriage and the source of drinking water—are found to be the significant determinants of infant mortality among the tea garden labourers of Assam. JEL Codes: I12, I15

Climate Extremes Walking Together: Evidence from Recent Compounding Climate Hazards after Remal

On May 26, 2024, Tropical Cyclone (TC) Remal made a devastating landfall along the coastal regions of India and Bangladesh. The sequence of devastating events began with prevailing heatwaves, followed by the cyclone’s landfall and subsequent heavy rainfall coupled with early onset of monsoon led to floods, landslides, and the resurgence of hot spells. It illustrates the complexity of managing such cascading effects of compound climate hazards. Multisource Earth Observation (EO) data with Google Earth Engine (GEE) was used to study the dynamics of Remal and its cascading impacts. IbTracks, INSAT-3D, GPM, Sentinel-1, and PlanetScope were involved in analyzing the cyclone's progression and impacts. Remal's slow progression extended the impact of the cyclone as it hovered over Bangladesh for more than 50 hours. As observed from the GPM data, the right side of the cyclone's path experienced more extensive and severe flooding than the left. Flood extent mapping using the Sentinel-1 data and Otsu thresholding depicted Jogipara, Assam in India and Jashore, Narail, and Khulna in Bangladesh as among the worst affected regions. Additionally, the early onset of the monsoon and the triggered cyclonic rainfall in the area led to landslides in Assam and Meghalaya during this period. The present study advocates the usage of multisource EO data and GEE for quick assessment of compound hazards started Remal. The study also highlights the need for a deeper understanding to develop a more robust district disaster management plan integrating EO data for actionable disaster risk reduction strategies for TC.

National Borders among Families: Removal and ‘Bare Life’ in India

This paper is about the state-driven process of ‘migrant ‘illegality’ (Genova 2002) and its impact on the life of Bengali speaking residents in the Assam state of India. While the movement of people across borders between India and present-day Bangladesh has been historical and complex, this ethnographic work explores how the state-driven process of migrant illegality and the production of ‘bare life’ have disrupted intimate relations and family life among the migrant population in Assam. While the recent NRC (National Register of Citizens) update in Assam identified 1.9 million people as illegal migrants, there has been bureaucratic enactment of ‘migrant illegality’ by Assam Border Police for the last several years. The institutional procedures, court documents and narratives of the select cases of ‘detected’ as well as ‘detained’ residents from ethnographic fieldwork reveal how the absence of formal papers and errors in the family records, kinship relations and property inheritance among the poor migrant families transforms actual citizens to ‘illegal migrants’ in the bureaucratic manoeuvring and reduces them to their ‘bare life’. The paper also shows how prejudice, arbitrariness, and contradictions feed into the bureaucratic process and lead to intense crises among family units, as several migrant families have both Indians and alleged ‘Bangladeshis’ in their homes today. The paper argues that the major consequence of this state-driven ‘migrant illegality’ in the last two decades has been the creation of national borders among families, unsettling intimate relations and shared spaces.

Reconfiguring the Tribe: Changing Ethnic Affiliations in India’s Northeast

This essay sees the form and functioning of the Zeliangrong Naga community as a work in progress. Rather than a perennial, historically immutable and delimited entity, the (relatively recent) formation of the Zeliangrong community indicates that tribes can be formed afresh and that tribal identities are constantly in flux. I begin by tracing and placing the origins of the Zeliangrong Naga as told by Zeliangrong elders and circulating origin and migration stories. Then, continuing my focus on ethnic alignment and realignment, I studied the Zeliangrong movement that emerged in the 1920s. At first, they advocated a Naga Raj through the ousting of the colonial government. Over time, however, this rebellion changed direction and reduced its ambitions to the creation of a Zeliangrong homeland that would unite the Zeliangrong people who currently inhabit three different states of Northeast India, namely Manipur, Nagaland and Assam. Drawing both on historical analysis and fresh ethnography this essay shows how over time the Zeliangrong ethnic identity has come under strain and is increasingly internally contested with its constituent parts now expressing divergent political aspirations while also struggling over status, standing and dominance within.

Evaluation of Promising Lines of Lai Patta (Brassica juncea var rugosa L.) Suitable for Cultivation in North Eastern India

The present study was carried out with ten accessions of laipatta (Brassica juncea var rugosa L.) in Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat in order to identify suitable high yielding variety(s) with desirable quality characters. The accessions viz., JorMLG-1, JorMLP-2, MLG-3, MLP-4, MLG-5, MLP-6, ShLG-7, KjLP-8, ChL-9 (Check), and KL-10(Check) were collected from different districts of Assam and North East. They were evaluated consecutively for three years in station trials in the Dept. of Horticulture, AAU, Jorhat for plant yield and other quantitative and quality characters. The accessions were tested in Multilocation trials in five research stations. In these trials. among all genotypes JorMLG-1 and JorMLP-2 were found to be the best for plant yield and other component characters. The On Farm trials conducted in 12 farmers’ fields in Jorhat and Kokrajhar districts of the state exhibited average plant yield of 350.1 q/ha in JorMLG-1 and 318.2 q/ha in JorMLP-2 with 34 – 48% yield increase over the best check variety (ChL-9). JorMLG-1was a green leaf variety whereas JorMLP-2 was a greenish purple variety. The edible leaves could be harvested upto 60 days in JorMLG-1 and 55 days in JorMLP-2 after transplanting till the initiation of bolters. However, the best check variety ChL-9 showed bolting at 25 days after transplanting. Estimation of quality characters revealed 147.6 mg ascorbic acid, 186 mg calcium and 11.21 mg iron per 100g in JorMLG-1 whereas 145.2 mg ascorbic acid, 176 mg calcium and 10.61 mg iron per 100g in JorMLP-2. They have been recommended in the Zonal Research Committee Meeting and Annual Technical Committee Meeting held at Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat during 2019-20 for release in the state of Assam. In view of yield performance, consumer preference and taste, the varieties are spreading very fast and getting popularity throughout entire NE states. However, more study is required on quality traits, genetic parameters and molecular aspects.

Heritagizing the Maestro

Bhupen Hazarika was a multifaceted personality known for his contributions as a singer, songwriter, composer, filmmaker, writer, and social activist from Assam, a state in the north-eastern part of India. To honour his life and works, a memorial site is constructed in the Jalukbari area of Assam. The site is called ‘Dr Bhupen Hazarika Samadhikshetra’. It is located in Guwahati city, near Gauhati University, in the state of Assam, India. The literal meaning of the Assamese words Samadhikshetra is a burial site. Through empirical research, the paper investigates the conceptual framework of heritagization as applied to Dr Hazarika’s legacy, focusing on preserving, maintaining, and celebrating his contributions to society. The study emphasises the role of the memorial site, as a tangible example of Dr Hazarika’s cultural relevance by delving further into its architectural design, symbolic elements, and commemorative features. Beyond these tangible aspects, the study also addresses the intangible values, identity and collective memories that the site evokes and preserves. The paper also explores the close interaction between the cultural and constructed heritage of the site, emphasising the need for a holistic strategy to protect and preserve the cultural past. Despite controversies and challenges over selecting the last resting place of Dr Hazarika, the Samadhikshetra stands as a tribute to his lasting influence and gratitude for his artistic legacy. Through commemorative events and ongoing public engagement, the memorial site continues to serve as a sacred space where Dr Hazarika’s spirit can live on and inspire future generations.

Exploring teacher characteristics and participation in TPACK-related online teacher professional development in Assam, India

Recent years have seen a significant increase in professional development opportunities to support teachers in enhancing their digital skills in India. However, to date, there is little evidence that teachers are confidently harnessing digital technologies within their classrooms. We suggest that this may be explained by insufficient attention on how teachers’ participation in TPACK-focused teacher professional development (TPD) programmes is mediated by their values, prior experiences and positioning within society. To explore this, we examined government upper primary and secondary school teachers’ experiences of participating in a course entitled ‘Constructivist teaching and learning with technology within the TPACK framework’ (CTLT), which was offered to over 500 teachers in 23 districts in the Indian state of Assam. Based on the survey responses of 209 (pre-course) and 109 (post-course) teachers, the findings of the study indicated that, contrary to expectations and much current scholarship, the female teachers significantly outperformed the male teachers in terms of course completion. However, the teachers who undertook the survey in English performed better than those who did so in Assamese. This paper explores possible reasons for these outcomes while recommending the need to take teacher characteristics into account when designing and implementing inclusive large-scale TPD programmes for TPACK.

Artificial Intelligence Plays Crucial Role in Education Sector of Assam

“AI is a mirror, reflection not only our intellect, but our values and fears” Artificial intelligence (AI) is shaping the future of technology and revolutionizing our education system. Due to evolution of artificial intelligence, we have seen the drastic change in our educational sector throughout the globe. It indicates a positive signal for present and future generations of our country and also throughout the globe. Artificial Intelligence (AI) can play a crucial role in the school functioning process, streamlining and optimizing the procedure for both institutions and applicants. Through AI-driven algorithms, schools can efficiently sift through a large pool of applicants, identifying the most suitable candidates based on predefined criteria such as student’s enrollment according to their academic performance, extracurricular activities, and personal attributes. One of the most remarkable advantages of employing AI in the admission process is its ability to eliminate human bias, ensuring fairness and equal opportunities for all applicants. AI systems are programmed to assess candidates solely based on their qualifications and merit, reducing the influence of subjective factor, viz., race, gender, or socioeconomic background. We have seen the drastic changes in case of new admission in our School and College for last 3 to 4 years in the state of Assam and country as well. Moreover, AI facilitates personalized and efficient communication with applicants, providing them with updates on their application status and guiding them through the admission process. Virtual assistants powered by AI can promptly address queries from applicants, offering them the support they need. Furthermore, AI enables predictive analysis, allowing schools to forecast future trends in admission and tailor their strategies accordingly. By analyzing past admission data and trends, AI systems can provide valuable insights into the preferences and behaviors of prospective students, helping schools make informed decisions and develop targeted recruitment strategies. AI is revolutionizing the school admission process by making it more efficient, transparent, and fair. By leveraging AI technologies, schools can streamline their admission procedures, improve the candidate experience, and ultimately ensure that the most qualified and deserving students are admitted. In Assam, the education department of Government of Assam has introduced Shiksha Setu App to enhance communication between students, parents, teachers, and educational institutions. It facilitates access to various educational resources, attendance tracking of both teachers and students, exam schedules, leave for teachers, and performance reports. Its significance lies in improving transparency, efficiency, and accessibility in the whole education system of Assam, and as result contributing to better student outcomes and parental involvement.

Potential environmental implications of sandbar afforestation: Insights from ecosystem restoration initiatives in a sandbar of Brahmaputra River Assam, India

Plantation in riverine sandbars offers an excellent opportunity for restoration of ecosystem with a vast potential for enhancing carbon stock. Afforestation on barren islands is challenging task; however, Padmashree Jadav Payeng has single-handedly transformed a sandbar of the river Brahmaputra into a forested landscape in India’s northeastern state of Assam. Such inspiring initiative needs more attention in terms of scientific assessment to quantify ecosystem value and services that can be enriched through such activities. This study uses remote sensing data viz., Landsat4–5TM and Sentinel 2 A data to provide a detailed information on spatio-temporal variability of land use land cover of study region from 1990 to 2021. It aims to conduct a scientific and systematic assessment of biophysical changes that have occurred in the sandbars, understand the status of afforestation, and evaluate the current levels of aboveground biomass (AGB), belowground biomass (BGB), and carbon stock in the selected sandbars. The spatial distribution of AGB, BGB and carbon stock is derived using linear regression model between SAR backscatter and field-based AGB. The results demonstrate that forest cover increased by 31.92 % and sandbar area is reduced by 26.87 % from 1990 to 2021. Spatially derived AGB ranges from 9 to 1295.89 Mg per ha, BGB from 2.35 to 290.50 Mg per ha and carbon stock from 6.18 to 763.34 Mg per ha. Ficus religiosa exhibits a high biomass, ranging from 564.7 Mg per ha to 994.7 Mg per ha, and a high carbon stock, ranging from 8 to 557.30 Mg per ha, attributed to its larger diameter at breast height (DBH). Moreover, phytosociological assessment was conducted for the studied forest, which reveal a total tree species richness of 79. The forest exhibits a total tree density of 395 individuals per hectare. Different biodiversity indices provide a comprehensive understanding of species composition; where results show a Shannon diversity index of 2.81, a Simpson's index of 0.08, a Menhinick's richness index of 2.7, and a Margalef's richness index of 5.26. The article provides detailed information on change in forest cover and present status of AGB, BGB and Carbon stock, providing evidence-based narratives on ecosystem restoration. The initiative by a single person has created a forested landscape and habitat for a large number of wild animals, contributing to better carbon stock and a healthier ecosystem. With regard to the current debate of carbon market, the study suggests the need of instrumentalization of carbon credits for such restoration activities to encourage increase in carbon stock. It also concludes that in-depth research should be taken up on long-term effectiveness of such plantation activities and the potential for scaling up these initiatives for ecosystem restoration in view of climate change mitigation and sustainable forest development.

A Study on Existing Hygiene Practices of Rural Women of Assam, India

Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases. It can be defined as the practice of certain habits to maintain a good health both at the personal level (personal hygiene – cleanliness, physical exercise, proper rest, sleep, bathing, avoiding smoking, drinking alcohols, drugs etc.) and at the community level (social hygiene – proper disposal of waste) (WHO, Jan, 2016). About 75% of health facilities are concentrated in urban areas where only 27% of the total population lives. Contagious, infectious and waterborne diseases such as diarrhea, amoebiasis, typhoid, infectious hepatitis, worm infestations, measles, malaria, tuberculosis, whooping cough, respiratory infections, pneumonia, reproductive tract infections etc. dominate the morbidity pattern, especially in rural areas [1]. The study was carried out in the state of Assam (India) with 270 randomly selected rural women of 3 districts, viz., Tinsukia, Nagaon and Barpeta districts to find the existing practice of respondents on hygiene. More than half of the respondents (57.04 %) belonged to ‘moderate category’ of practice level on hygiene. Majority of the respondents belonged to ‘moderate category’ of practice level on hygiene, namely Barpeta (56.67%), Nagaon (53.33%) and Tinsukia (61.11%). It is also observed that the Nagaon district had highest percentage (24.44%) of respondents that belonged to ‘poor category’ of practice level on hygiene as compared to the other two districts.

Knowledge of Nutrition and Hygiene among Rural Women of Assam in India

Knowledge of Nutrition and Hygiene among Rural Women of Assam in India

An outbreak of acute diarrhoeal disease caused by Shigella sonnei in a village in Dibrugarh district, Assam.

Background & objectives Food and waterborne illnesses remain a neglected public health issue in India. Events with large gatherings frequently witness outbreaks of acute diarrheal diseases due to consumption of contaminated food or water or poor food handling practices. In the present study, an outbreak of acute diarrhoeal disease (ADD) occurring among the attendees of a birthday party in rural Dibrugarh district in the northeastern Indian State of Assam was investigated. Methods Sociodemographic information along with details of ADD outbreak that included information about source of foods, food handlers, illness details, etc., were collected using an outbreak investigation form for descriptive and analytical epidemiology. Rectal swabs from affected individuals and food handlers were collected along with bore-well water samples and tested in the laboratory by performing bacterial culture, biochemical analysis and polymerase chain reaction. Due to the delayed report on the outbreak, collecting leftover food for laboratory testing and analysis was impossible. Results A total of 25 cases of ADD had similar signs and symptoms. The mean incubation period for developing acute diarrhoea was 26.36±8.76 (± standard deviation) hours from food consumption. The overall attack rate was 60.04 per cent (25/41); 20 per cent (5/25) required hospitalization. Thirteen rectal swab samples were tested for pathogens and found positive for Shigella sonnei. Antibiotic susceptibility test of isolated S. sonnei showed resistance to nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin and cefotaxime. Consumption of one of the food items - chicken curry was significantly associated with illness (Odds Ratio=14.8; 95% Confidence Interval: 2.75-85.11); P value<0.05 and Population Attributable Fraction (PAF) was 70.18 per cent. The water samples were found satisfactory for human consumption. Interpretation & conclusions The findings suggested that S. sonnei infection could be implicated in the investigated food-borne diarrhoeal disease outbreak and that there was a potential for human-poultry cross-infection. Additionally, the study revealed concerning levels of S. sonnei resistance to recommended antibiotics and drew attention to their public health relevance.

The Kudmi (Kudumi), a totemic community of Jharkhand State and near about parts (India) – critical evaluation for inclusion in ST category

The Kudmi (Kudumi) a totemic primitive community (tribe) originated and evolved from the Neanderthal man (Homo Sapiens neanderthdemais) 2,30,000 years ago, like all other human beings, which is evidenced by the evolutionary theories based on fossil findings and population genetics. They are inhabiting in the state of Jharkhand and its near about, i.e. of West Bengal, Assam, Odisha and Chattisgarh states since time immemorial, who were classified as “Primitive tribes” by the British regime in India in 1865, alongwith other primitive tribes under the term of the Indian succession Act, as they have customary rules of sucession. Subsequently in 1913 and 1931 they were included in the list of tribes (Primitive Tribes). But unfortunately, they were omitted as from the ST category drawn up in 1950 for reasons that are unknown, although they are having traits of Primitive Tribes, e.g., they are totemic (alike all other primitive tribes of India and the world) i.e. their lineage related to plants, animals and other natural objects, shyness of contact with other communities at large, distinctive culture, geographically isolated, Backwardness (towards past, keeping back and slow is learning) and specific mother tongue-“Kudmali’.Under the above circumstances the Kudmis of the above noted geographical area be again reincluded in the ST category by the present authority concerned to bring them to the main stream of development of the country and to uplift their life style and social status at large.

A Correlation Study to Comprehend the SAR-CoV-2 Viral Load, Antiviral Antibody Titer, and Severity of COVID-19 Symptoms Post-infection Amongst the Vaccinated Population in Kamrup District of As sam, Northeast India.

As per the recommendation of the United States Food and Drug Administration, more research is needed to determine the antibody titer against COVID-19 vaccination. The study aimed to understand the relationship between the antibody titer to the demographics, infection severity, and cycle threshold (CT) values of confirmed COVID-19 patients. Initially, we obtained consent from 185 populations and included sixty RT-PCRpositive COVID-19 patients from Kamrup District in the Northeast State of Assam, India. The vaccination status was recorded and tested for the level of serum immunoglobulin (IgG). The CT values, gender, and clinical symptoms-based scoring (CSBS) correlated with their IgG value. Around 48% of participants gained an antibody titer more than the threshold value and showed CT values between 18-25. Moreover, the maximum distributed score above the average was found between the CT values 18-25. The IgG titer value differs significantly amongst the vaccinated population, which may depend upon their genetic and demographic variability.

Data analytics in ensemble learning for effective crop yield prediction

In agricultural research, Crop Yield Prediction (CYP) offers the best decision-making to assist farmers in agricultural yield forecasting efficiently. Most of the existing studies have not considered the exhaustive exploration of data analytics techniques in Machine Learning (ML) for CYP due to which the existing models have not given the optimal results. The main objective of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of data analytics in Ensemble Learning (EL) techniques for more reliable and high-performance CYP models. This article proposes an expert system model, Blended Expert System for Crop Yield Prediction (BESCYP), designed to predict the precise crop yields for specific agricultural lands in the Assam state of India. The proposed BESCYP employs Expectation–Maximization (EM) algorithm to treat missing values, the Isolation Forest (IF) technique to analyze outliers, the Genetic Algorithm (GA) to perform feature selection, Robust Scaling (RS) technique to perform data normalization and the Extra Tree (ET) for classification that overcome the variance and overfitting problem commonly associated with standard ML algorithms. The evaluation of the proposed BESCYP model has been performed using accuracy, precision, recall, and F-1 score on a dataset obtained from International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). The proposed model is compared against different standard ML algorithms, EL algorithms and various existing models available in the literature, and the experimental results show that the proposed BESCYP model outperforms other models.

IMPACT OF INPUT TAX CREDIT ON WORKING CAPITAL REQUIREMENTS OF MSMES IN INDIA: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY

The main objective is to find out the impact of the Tax Credit (ITC) in the GST structure on the utilitarian capacity and liquidity of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) in India. Using a coordinated survey to gather information on working capital stocks and GST consistency, 200 MSMEs in Assam, India, were selected to conduct a quantitative assessment. The results show that there are significant areas for the relationship between better working capital conditions and the use of ITS. This suggests that MSMEs can have greater financial flexibility and fewer pay restrictions if they do register ITC claims. According to the practical implications of the assessment, policymakers should deal with the ITC system and offer additional assistance to ensure that MSMEs can fully benefit from the GST. This study is novel because it is uniquely relevant to the state of Assam, offering alternative, progressive views on the specific impact of the goods and services tax on small businesses in that state.

Mesua assamica (King & Prain) kosterm. bark ethanolic extract attenuates rheumatoid arthritis via down-regulating TLR4/NF-κB/COX-2/iNOS and activation of Nrf2/HO-1 pathways: A comprehensive study on in-vitro and in-vivo models

Ethnopharmacological relevanceRheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a multifactorial, polygenic inflammatory disease. Mesua assamica (King & Prain) Kosterm. (MA) is an endangered medicinal plant indigenous to South Asia, primarily to Assam in India. The tree bark is claimed to possess anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, and anti-malarial properties; nevertheless, its role in RA has not been elucidated. Hence, this study aims to investigate the in-vitro and in-vivo anti-arthritic effects of Mesua assamica bark ethanolic extract (MAE). Aim of the studyThis study aims to investigate the anti-rheumatic potential of MAE in-vitro on RAW 264.7 cells for its anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activities and in-vivo on the CFA-induced adjuvant arthritis in the rat model. Materials and methodsWe investigated the possible therapeutic effects of MAE in-vitro using RAW 264.7 cells triggered by LPS. Meanwhile, adult Wistar rats were injected intradermally with 100 μl of CFA to induce arthritis, and they were given MAE orally at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg for up to 28 days. Paw volume analysis, X-ray radiography, anti-oxidant levels analysis, gene and protein expression studies, and histological analysis were carried out to assess the effects of MAE in-vivo. ResultsMAE significantly mitigated the inflammation by reducing ROS levels and dropped the nitrite, PGE2, and COX-2 levels enhanced by LPS in-vitro. At the same time, MAE treatment reduced the paw and joint inflammation and increased the immune organ index in the CFA rats. Histopathology data revealed that MAE mitigated the CFA-induced lesions of the ankle joints and synovial tissues. Similarly, MAE significantly abated the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, inhibited the protein expression of TLR4, NF-кB, COX-2, and iNOS, as well as improved the Nrf2 and HO-1 levels in-vitro and in-vivo. ConclusionAll the results highlighted the anti-rheumatic potential of MAE in RA in-vitro and in-vivo by inhibiting the TLR4/NF-кB/COX-2/iNOS and promoting the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling axis.

(Un)Credible citizen: citizenship dispossession, documents and the politics of the rule of law

ABSTRACT This article explores how states mobilise ideologies of the rule of law to legitimise, facilitate and obscure human rights violations, especially in the context of citizenship and migration. There is a global pattern of states using ostensibly legal means to undermine citizenship status of vulnerable minorities. In several national contexts, the invocation of the rule of law and the use of legal identity documents are interlocked. States have relied on the regimes of documentary citizenship as the legal face of citizenship deprivation. This article studies India's north-eastern state of Assam – one of the most striking instances of this pattern – where bureaucratic practices of citizenship adjudication have threatened the citizenship status of more than 3 million people. It shows that despite being centred around them, the administrators of documentary citizenship routinely disregard identity documents in their everyday functioning. It argues that India's ethnicised politics towards immigration constitutes contradictory attitudes towards identity documents. Officials imagine legal identity documents as legitimate and viable, and simultaneously compromised due to administrative corruption and complicity. This documentary doublethink engenders grave instability of citizenship status. The article illuminates how the rule of law – like the documentary regimes it sustains – is Janus-faced by producing and obscuring precarious citizenship.

The punitive gap: NRC, due process and denationalisation politics in India’s Assam

The creation of the National Register of Citizens (NRC) in Assam is indicative of the sharpening tensions surrounding citizenship, belonging and integration in India. Officially aimed at demarcating the “legitimate citizens”, its implementation is believed to have resulted in the partial exclusion of the so-called “Doubtful Voters” and denationalisation of the “illegitimate residents”. These frictions associated with citizenship identity and rights are nowhere as acute as in the northeastern Indian state of Assam, where measures of retroactive revocation, administrative erasure and withdrawal of citizenship rights have been systematically deployed against religious and linguistic minorities. Using new research with some NRC rejected applicants in western Assam and other materials, this article identifies the central aspects of the implementation gap in the crucial, albeit problematic task of locating the rightful “Assamese-Indian” citizens. Linking our work to the idea of the ‘process is the punishment’, we conceptualise these conspicuous inconsistencies in the NRC citizenship determination processes and their results as the “punitive gap”. We have identified the distinctive contours of this gap in terms of the massive economic costs, intensification of social (including gender and religion-based) inequalities, increased control through social suspicion and unpredictable outcomes for the marginal Miya Muslim community. The article highlights how this punitive gap has constantly eroded key components of due process, of procedural and substantive protections of the rights of individuals, during the NRC determination exercise and after the release of the final draft list.

The &amp;lsquo;Secret Killings&amp;rsquo; in Assam: Counterinsurgency and Censoring Perpetrator Information

In the late 1990s, a protracted armed conflict between the Indian government and the insurgent organization, United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) in the Northeast Indian state of Assam escalated to include ‘secret killings’ of family members, close aides, and sympathizers of ULFA among its many violent manifestations. The killers primarily targeted insurgents’ families to persuade their underground kin to surrender, and to create fear among community members who sympathized with the movement or sheltered its cadres. The 2007 report of the Justice K. N. Saikia Commission pointed out the role of the surrendered insurgents, and the state police behind the secret killings, where the army was kept in the loop in some cases. Surprisingly, over 300 people were killed between 1998 and 2001 under common circumstances but no one was convicted. This article describes the challenges I faced in conducting ethnographic fieldwork on this sensitive event, which continues to draw political and media attention in the region. I focus on the challenges of interviewing survivors, families of victims, and police officers about the secret killings in Assam. I particularly reflect on my fieldwork experience of what to ask, what to write and what to censor about my participants, and consider the ethical dimension of making those decisions. I argue that these decisions were often made spontaneously in response to emergent situations and my ethical principles. I let the responses of my participants guide me in the field, and did not carry any predetermined strategies to guide the interviews.