Aspects Of Technological Change Research Articles

Technology in World History: Cultures of Constraint and Innovation, Emulation, and Technology Transfers

Technology in World History Culturs of Constraint and Innvation, Emulation, and Technology Transfers1 Ian Inkster Introduction: Approaching Technology The approaches by social scientists and historians to the important theme of cultural constraints on technological innovation and creativity have been varied and highly problematic. Many analyses of innovation focus on its inducement through entirely noncultural, or seemingly acultural, processes (Binswanger & Ruttan, 1978). Here the focus has mostly been on economically induced technological innovation, normally operating through a change in relative-factor prices or demand. Thus, historians have discovered stasis in early Chinese technologies due to a rising man/ land ratio (Chao, 1986). So also Ahmad's induced-innovation hypothesis suggests that a decline in wages relative to land prices, say, would encourage [End Page 108] technical progress that was biased in land-saving and labor-using directions through the multitudinous agency of profit-seeking individuals operating with good information in competitive market conditions, and much effort has gone into econometric testing of such theorizing (Ahmad, 1966). Historians of technology frequently come across such relations, although often extended to incorporate bias toward or away from certain priced materials or skills components—persistent technicians will spend much ingenuity in substituting alloys or other metals or materials for copper or zinc that is rising in price. The need to exploit a potential asset at low cost might induce a search for new techniques, as in the cyanide process for gold extraction from tailings in the late nineteenth century (Inkster & Todd, 1988). But such inducements seem to refer principally to switches within an existing technological or production system. In historical situations where such markets, agency, and information may not be assumed away, and where much of the analytical problem lies with the manner in which knowledge develops and is brought to bear on production in some places and times (and not in other places or times), such analyses become less interesting and useful. Markets are themselves institutions with real cultural histories, and where markets are weak, then a variety of cultural factors may intrude on the manner in which sensible private or public agents take up or entirely eschew technological innovation. Cultural factors also loom the larger when we, as working historians, are forced to consider the whole range of Schumpeterian-style innovation, beyond mere product or machine/process innovations. This is partly because cultures might retard technological innovation though at the same time may induce innovations in organizations, markets, and other aspects of technological change in the wider, Schumpeterian sense. We must therefore be prepared to at least consider the historical force of cultures of innovation in areas other than the strictly technological, for innovations in institutions (for instance), may have as great an impact on economic growth and productivity as any shiny new machine (North, 2005). Culture and All That Famously, Raymond Williams warned that the term "culture" is among the most "complicated words in the English language" (Williams, 1983, p. 88). It seems that such scare quotes remain appropriate. But it seems as apparent, that if we are to examine the relations between culture and technological change, then we need some limiting and working definition of the more doubtful of the two key terms. This is because any attempt at [End Page 109] persuading historians of the material world that physical outcomes might be decisively and measurably determined by cultural elements peculiar to particular civilizations, nations, institutions, or sites will encounter intellectual resistance. If such persuasions utilize terms that are clearly superinclusive, then they are that much more easily faulted. If we are not to confuse past culture with past life itself, then we must risk some charges of reductionism in favor of the greater certainty of a more outright dismissal. Much of the observed behavior that is attributed to such terms as "values," "attitudes," and "culture" is historically channelled and perceived through the workings of specific institutions. Although the field is a very large one, we might summarize...

RFID technology innovations: the use of patent data

Study on Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) has recently gained increasing attention from both industry practitioners and academic researchers. However, despite discussions of its promising future and potential applications of RFID, to date, a surprising dearth of work has been conducted on RFID technology development from the holistic perspective. Patent analysis has long been considered to be an important method for assessing various aspects of technological change. This paper utilises rich, reliable information provided by RFID-related invention patents in the USPTO database to provide an overall picture of RFID innovations.

The Growth of the Beef Cattle Breeding Sector in Okinawa after the Reversion to Japan in 1972

Agriculture in Okinawa has experienced a significant growth in the beef cattle breeding sector since the reversion to Japan in 1972. Especially since the mid-1980s, induced by booming calf prices and declining profitability of sugar cane farming, many farmers have embarked on or expanded their beef cattle breeding, and this has resulted in the rapid growth of the sector to the present day. This study viewed this process in terms of the evolutionary process of the population of farm management making up the sector, tries to deepen the understanding of this phenomenon and sets forth a reliable view of the future through an analysis focusing on their adaptive technological changes. Adaptive technological changes result from a process of trial and error by farmers striving to incorporate new technology, induced by the changes in the external environment. This aspect of technological change has captured little attention in existing theories such as that of induced technological innovation.In Okinawa after 1972, the population of beef cattle breeding management has evolved, differentiating into roughly three types. The first is small-scale management (type C) which generally tends to have less than 20 female breeding cattle. This type of management makes no major investment in agricultural machinery or facilities. Farm households adopting this type earn their living depending on other principal sectors. The second is middle-scale management (type B) which generally tends to have 20-40 female breeding cattle. This type of management possesses a set of machinery for mowing and producing roughage and makes a moderate investment in upgrading and expanding grasslands and facilities according to need. Farm households adopting this type enlarge the management from type C and increase their reliance on beef cattle breeding. The third type is large-scale management (type A) which tends to have at least 40, normally more than 60, female breeding cattle. This type of management makes large-scale investment in fully-fledged facilities, machinery, and the acquisition and creation of vast grasslands taking advantage of subsidized projects and institutional financing. Farm households adopting this type enlarge the management from type C in stages (type A3) or take a sudden jump by joining government projects to create large-scale livestock management (type A2) or to develop wide-scale grasslands (type A1).With respect to beef cattle breeding in Okinawa, it has been repeatedly pointed out that it has the advantage of reducing cost due to lower material costs for roughage which is naturally supplied in the subtropical climate where it is warm throughout the year and the productivity of grass is relatively high. However, according to knowledge based on the analysis of sample farm management from Tarama and Ishigaki islands in this study, it is only small-scale management that can be said to enjoy this advantage. As regards middle-scale and large-scale management, especially the latter, the ecological and social environments in Okinawa impose many difficulties to be overcome in their operation. What is in question there is the high level of technological capability of individual farm management, including the ability to cope with the unfavorable situation in Okinawa.The shift from sugar cane farming among "the second sugar cane boomers" contributed a great deal to the growth of the beef cattle breeding sector after 1972 and in conjunction with this, small and middle-scale management have occupied an important share in the population of beef cattle breeding management. The second sugar cane boomers are the generation who responded to changes in the policy environment after 1972, including price rises for sugar cane, and decided to enter into or remain in the agricultural sector during the period from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s.

The Significance of Mr. Richard Buckley's Exploding Trousers: Reflections on an Aspect of Technological Change in New Zealand Dairy Farming between the World Wars

The Significance of Mr. Richard Buckley's Exploding Trousers: Reflections on an Aspect of Technological Change in New Zealand Dairy Farming between the World Wars

The Significance of Mr. Richard Buckley’s Exploding Trousers: Reflections on an Aspect of Technological Change in New Zealand Dairy Farming between the World Wars

Abstract During the early 1930s many New Zealand farmers enthusiastically adopted the highly inflammable chemical sodium chlorate as a weedicide against ragwort. This development reflected many aspects of New Zealand farming at the time. Dairying was expanding rapidly, reducing the control of ragwort by grazing with sheep; large areas of land cleared in the post-war boom were reverting to weeds; farmers tended to look to the state to assist with their problems and the Department of Agriculture promoted the use of sodium chlorate; farmers were generally highly literate and were rapidly aware of new possibilities; and there was a continuing shortage of labor in farming. The latter reflected New Zealand’s generally restrictive immigration policies; higher wages and greater freedom in urban employment; changing demography and attitudes to child labor; attitudes to married women working out on the farm; and, perhaps most importantly, the widespread drive for independence from farm workers and neighbors. Sodium chlorate seemed to promise a solution to the control of ragwort without the high financial and personal cost of finding additional labor.

Technical Change in the Private Consumption Converter

The analysis of technological change is centered on the study of the evolution of technical coefficients in the input–output table. Complementary to this analysis, the household consumption expenditure matrix, relating consumption by commodities to consumption by purpose or by function, also incorporates some other aspects of technological change. Thus, the evolution in time of the coefficients of this consumption expenditure matrix will portray technological processes, implying substitutions between commodities to satisfy the different functions The substitution between consumption expenditure by functions is also to be taken into consideration, because it can influence, together with technological change, the use of commodities in the final demand. For Switzerland, a 1980–89 time series of household consumption expenditure matrices with 37 commodities and 58 functional consumption categories has been estimated using data from consumer expenditure surveys. In this paper, instruments generally applied to the analysis of changes in input–output technical coefficients are extended to these matrices, including methods that deal with biproportional processes of substitution.

Early American Technology: Making and Doing Things from the Colonial Era to 1850

This collection of original essays documents technology's centrality to the history of early America. Unlike much previous scholarship, this volume emphasizes the quotidian rather than the exceptional: the farm household seeking to preserve food or acquire tools, the surveyor balancing economic and technical considerations while laying out a turnpike, the woman of child-bearing age employing herbal contraceptives, and the neighbors of a polluted urban stream debating issues of property, odor, and health. These cases and others drawn from brewing, mining, farming, and woodworking enable the authors to address recent historiographic concerns, including the environmental aspects of technological change and the gendered nature of technical knowledge. Brooke Hindle's classic 1966 essay on early American technology is also reprinted, and his view of the field is reassessed. A bibliographical essay and summary of Hindle's bibliographic findings conclude the volume. The contributors are Judith A. McGaw, Robert C. Post, Susan E. Klepp, Michal McMahon, Patrick W. O'Bannon, Sarah F. McMahon, Donald C. Jackson, Robert B. Gordon, Carolyn C. Cooper, and Nina E. Lerman.

The involvement of trade unions in quality: evidence from EC enterprises

In 1987–88 a large attitudinal survey covering all 12 Member States of the European Community was carried out by the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions in Dublin which focused on various aspects of participation by employee representatives in new information technology. This paper presents evidence on one important aspect of technological change—that of participation in product and service quality.

Participation in product and service quality: recent survey evidence from the European Community

In 1987–88, a large attitudinal survey covering all 12 member states of the EC was carried out by the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions in Dublin which focused on various aspects of participation by employee representatives in new information technology. This paper presents evidence on one important aspect of technological change—that of participation in product and service quality. After outlining the survey method used, the paper sets out an explanatory framework which is based on much of the literature, surveys and case study evidence on the impact of new technology on work and employment. The explanatory factors are used to explain the wide diversity in the levels of participation in product and service quality across the EC which emanated from the survey. Despite the wide variations from one country to another, the survey results suggest that participation levels are likely to increase throughout the EC in the future.

Role of Materials Analysis in the Reconstruction of Early Metal Extraction Technology: Zinc and Silver-Lead Smelting at Zawar, Rajasthan

AbstractMicroscopy and elemental analysis of ore, slag, ceramic and ash from a major metallurgical site have allowed insights into the ancient processes. Constraints have been placed on raw materials and smelting conditions, and aspects of technological change and development have been recognised.

The extinguishing process: A case study of steel technologies in the world industry

This article examines the elimination of two old steel technologies, the Bessemer method and oxygen-steelmaking. This particular aspect of technological change has not been explored much, whereas substantial effort has been put into determining how these, and other steel technologies were originally adopted. The limited objective of this paper is to conduct a time analysis, i.e., to establish when the two processes began to be phased out, the pattern of such elimination, and how long it took for the steel industry to abandon completely these once-dominant technologies. While the elimination, or extinguishing of the two technologies was relatively fast in terms of their whole life-span, old technologies tend to hang on in a residual role a rather long period of time.

Aspects of technological change and its impact on demand for industrial accommodation

Do science parks and high‐technology industrial estates have anything other than a semantic link with the process of technological change in industry? The paper considers this question by examining some aspects of technological change and comparing them with the initial results of a survey of British science parks and high‐technology developments.

Some Aspects of Technological Change—1900 to 1939: A Symposium

(1983). Some Aspects of Technological Change—1900 to 1939: A Symposium. Transactions of the Newcomen Society: Vol. 55, No. 1, pp. 31-66.

Time Paths in the Diffusion of Product Innovations

This study attempts to measure and analyse the diffusion of product innovations. Diffusion is defined as the spread in the number of producers engaged in manufacturing a new product. Thus, the term refers to the net entry rate in the market for a new product. We trace the history of diffusion for 46 new products and examine the inter-relations among diffusion, other aspects of technological change, price, output, and certain attributes of the relevant markets. To explain the 46 product histories, we construct a theory of the development of industries for new products. Our theory combines elements of traditional, neoclassical models with what Nelson and Winter (I974) have termed an evolutionary theory. A novel feature is that the historical sequence, or time path, of events is viewed as a critical determinant of the ultimate structure of new product markets. Thus the time path of events determines not only the course traversed in reaching the end result but the ultimate market structure itself. The paper is organised in four sections. In Section I we present our theory. In Section II we construct a series of alternative theories of the development of industries for new products based on approaches to be found in received literature. The evidence from the 46 new product histories is examined in Section III. Finally, a brief summary of principal findings follows in Section IV.

The Airplane as an Economic Variable: Aspects of Technological Change in Aeronautics, 1903-1955

Economists have paid a great deal of attention to the aspects of technological change that encompass the way things are made. Capital-labor ratios are used to define biased or neutral technological change-that is, whether the change affects the input mix. The machine tool industry, as a focal point in the invention and dissemination of new manufacturing techniques, has been intensively examined.1 However, one aspect that has received scant attention is the design of new materials in order to solve bottleneck problems.2 This paper examines the process by which solutions to problems imposed by a bottleneck are solved. The process is one of optimization, that is, improving performance characteristics subject to constraints. The product, whether it be an aeroengine, aerodynamic shape, or missile system, is viewed as a collection of characteristics among which trade-offs may take place without changing the utility derived from the use of the product. There are two kinds of technological change that will allow the objectives to be fulfilled when there are bottleneck problems. One way is by a change in design, that is, the existing or new elements are recombined to circumvent the constraint. For example, if the task is to cut metal at a high rate of removal and the constraint is the failure of the cutting tool due to excess heat, a design solution DR. HANIESKI, assistant professor of economics and management at the University of Missouri, St. Louis, specializes in the study of 20th-century technological change. He wishes to thank Nathan Rosenberg (University of Wisconsin) for his guidance in developing this paper.

Studies of Technological Change

The enormous practical importance of the formulation of a theory of economic development for problems in public policy (organization of aid to backward regions under Point IV, the public power program of the Department of Interior, and the development program of the Atomic Energy Commission, are examples), as well as its intellectual interest, has drawn increasing attention to this area. Technological change derives its urgency as a field of study from its intimate connection with economic development. To Karl Marx, technology played a central role in determining the very shape of social structure. Thorstein Veblen placed it below first rank as a cause, but gave it the role of creating sufficient surplus production that a whole class of predators and a structure of predation grew up to expropriate it. These, and other philosophies of history which gave technology preeminent position as a causal factor, have led to many detailed studies of various aspects of technological change--studies of its causes, its history, its consequences, and its control. Despite the effort lavished on these studies, we have not improved our theory of economic evolution much beyond where it stood before the effort was made. Our factual data are better, but our perspective and our ability to predict are little improved.2 The reason for this lies, at least partly, in a fault common to many of these undertakings. They viewed change in terms of a narrow modelsometimes explicit, usually implicit-which excluded many of the variables relevant to understanding and control. For this, however, the authors of these studies are less to be blamed than the theorists who have failed to provide satisfactory models.3