Asian Oyster Research Articles

Restoration potential of Asian oysters on heavily developed coastlines

Reef‐building oysters historically provided the main structural and ecological component of temperate and subtropical coastal waters globally. While the loss of oyster reefs is documented in most regions globally, assessments of the status of Asian oyster reefs are limited. The feasibility of restoration within the regional biological and societal contexts needs to be assessed before implementation. Here, we quantified the current distribution of natural oyster reefs (Crassostrea spp.) in the shallow coastal waters of Hong Kong, assessed the biological feasibility of reestablishing reefs using natural recruitment, and examined their current and potential water filtration capacity as a key ecosystem service provided by restoration. We found natural low‐relief oyster beds in the low intertidal coastal areas at a subset of the locations surveyed. These areas are, however, degraded and have sparse densities of oysters generally <2 years old. Recruitment was high in some areas (>500,000 indiv./m2) and while survival to maturity varied across sites there was adequate larval supply and survival for restoration. Filtration rates for a 1‐year‐old recruit (90 mm length, approximately 30 L/hour per individual) at summer temperatures (30°C) meant that even the small remnant populations are able to provide some filtration services (up to 31.7 ML/hour). High natural recruitment means that oyster reef restoration can be achieved with the addition of hard substrate for recruitment, increased protection of restoration sites, and would not only increase the ecological value of reefs regionally but also serve as a model for future restoration in Asia.

Crassostrea talonata, a new threat to native oyster (Bivalvia: Ostreidae) culture in the Southwest Atlantic

Genetic analyses of oyster seeds collected from settlement plates (in southeast Brazil Santa Catarina, N = 207) and from marsh plants (Argentina, Samborombón Bay, N = 20) revealed that most seeds did not belong to any of the oyster species recorded for the Atlantic. Phylogenetic analyses based on mitochondrial (Cytochrome c Oxidase subunit I and large ribosomal subunit) and nuclear (ribosomal Internal Transcribed Spacer 2) sequences positioned that species in the Asian oyster cluster of Crassostrea, suggesting an invasive origin and identifying the species as C. talonata, a species described for China and also recently found in Peru. The predominance of this species in cultivation settlement plates indicates that it outcompetes C. gasar, native of the South-Atlantic, making it a nuisance species for oyster cultivation. Since specimens of C. talonata have been found from the mouth of the Amazon to the coast of Argentina, it is likely that the species has a large ecological plasticity and possibly a strong invasive capacity, making it a major threat to oyster culture in the area. This is the first record of C. talonata for the Atlantic.

The complete mitochondrial DNA of the tropical oyster Crassostrea belcheri from the Cần Giò’ mangrove in Vietnam

The complete mitochondrial genome of the oyster Crassostrea belcheri from the Cần Giò’ mangrove in Vietnam has been sequenced. It consists of a circular DNA molecule of 21020 base pairs (bp), coding for 12 proteins, 20 transfer RNAs, and two ribosomal RNAs. Like the mitogenomes of Crassostrea iredalei and Crassostrea sp. DB1, it contains a non-coding region and two ORFs. The C. belcheri mitogenome provides information that could improve the molecular phylogeny of Asian oysters and be useful to the development of oyster aquaculture in South East Asia.

Bonamia exitiosa transmission among, and incidence in, Asian oyster Crassostrea ariakensis under warm euhaline conditions.

Previously reported in Australia, New Zealand, and more recently in Europe, the protistan parasite Bonamia exitiosa was also reported in the mid-Atlantic region of the USA after causing serious mortalities there in the Asian oyster Crassostrea ariakensis. At the time, this oyster was being considered for introduction, and the potential consequences of introducing this species were being assessed using field and laboratory studies. B. exitiosa emerged as the most serious disease threat for this oyster species, especially under warm euhaline conditions and for oysters <50 mm in size. To better evaluate how quickly this parasite may be able to spread among C. ariakensis, we investigated B. exitiosa transmission and incidence in C. ariakensis. During a first trial, potential direct transmission of B. exitiosa was evaluated by cohabitating infected C. ariakensis with uninfected C. ariakensis under in vivo quarantine conditions. In a second experiment, B. exitiosa incidence was estimated in situ by determining its prevalence in C. ariakensis deployed in an enzootic area after 4, 7, 14, 21 and 28 d of exposure. Results suggest that under warm euhaline conditions B. exitiosa can be transmitted among C. ariakensis without requiring any other parasite source and that parasite incidence may be at least as high as 40% after only 4 d exposure to an enzootic area. These results underscored the severity of the bonamiasis disease threat to C. ariakensis and provided further evidence that efforts to build an aquaculture industry based on C. ariakensis in the eastern USA might have been thwarted by parasitic disease.

Mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis from multiple gene fragments reveals genetic heterogeneity of Crassostrea ariakensis in East Asia

The native Asian oyster, Crassostrea ariakensis is one of the most common and important Crassostrea species that occur naturally along the coast of East Asia. Molecular species diagnosis is a prerequisite for population genetic analysis of wild oyster populations because oyster species cannot be discriminated reliably using external morphological characters alone due to character ambiguity. To date there have been few phylogeographic studies of natural edible oyster populations in East Asia, in particular this is true of the common species in Korea C. ariakensis. We therefore assessed the levels and patterns of molecular genetic variation in East Asian wild populations of C. ariakensis from Korea, Japan, and China using DNA sequence analysis of five concatenated mtDNA regions namely; 16S rRNA, cytochrome oxidase I, cytochrome oxidase II, cytochrome oxidase III, and cytochrome b. Two divergent C. ariakensis clades were identified between southern China and remaining sites from the northern region. In addition, hierarchical AMOVA and pairwise Φ ST analyses showed that genetic diversity was discontinuous among wild populations of C. ariakensis in East Asia. Biogeographical and historical sea level changes are discussed as potential factors that may have influenced the genetic heterogeneity of wild C. ariakensis stocks across this region.

Complete mitochondrial genome of the Olympia oyster Ostrea lurida (Bivalvia, Ostreidae)

The complete mitochondrial (mt) genome of the Olympia oyster Ostrea lurida (16,344 bp), an economically important bivalve, was newly sequenced and annotated. Ostrea lurida is the largest reported Ostrea oyster mt genomes to date and has a comparatively highest overall A + T content (65%) among the available genomes of marine oysters. High levels of variability of nad2 and nad6 genes and that of major non-coding region (MNR) indicate their potential value as useful molecular markers for population and conservation genetic studies in the future. Phylogenetic analyses based on concatenated nucleotide sequences from all 13 PCGs and 2 rRNA genes show that the European flat oyster Ostrea edulis is sister to the Asian slipper oyster Ostrea denselamellosa, while O. lurida is put at the most basal position of the clade, and indicate that Ostrea are closer to Saccostrea than Crassostrea, although gene arrangement shows a closer relationship between Ostrea and Crassostrea. The observations of the evolutionary pattern of start codon usage among the three congeneric oysters indicate that variation in start codon usage is species-correlated rather than gene-correlated, and to some extent, bears useful phylogenetic information.

Survival, Acid—Base Balance, and Gaping Responses of the Asian OysterCrassostrea ariakensisand the Eastern OysterCrassostrea virginicaDuring Clamped Emersion and Hypoxic Immersion

The eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica has a remarkable ability to withstand low oxygen conditions; however, many of the biochemical mechanisms by which that tolerance is accomplished remain poorly understood. In addition, little is known about hypoxia tolerances and adaptations of the Asian oyster Crassostrea ariakensis. By comparing these closely related species, we may learn more about the physiological mechanisms responsible for the hypoxia tolerance of C. virginica. We assessed the time to mortality and gaping responses in both species during hypoxia. Adult C. ariakensis died earlier than C. virginica and gaped more often and wider than C. virginica. Gaping by either species was associated with acidification of the ambient seawater. We also compared the hemolymph pH of emersed and clamped C. virginica and C. ariakensis between 0 h and 24 h. In both species, hemolymph pH declined over time, and C. ariakensis hemolymph became significantly more acidic throughout the study period than that of C. virginica. The infection levels of Perkinsus marinus observed in our samples were not correlated with hemolymph pH changes in either species. Our findings demonstrate fundamental differences in survival and suggest important physiological differences exist between these species.

Ecological Risks Associated with Oyster Restoration Options for Chesapeake Bay

ABSTRACT Ecological risk assessments were conducted as part of the Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement designed to evaluate costs and benefits of alternative approaches to oyster restoration in Chesapeake Bay, USA, including the intentional introduction of a non-native Asian oyster species. A relative risk model was used to evaluate alternatives involving both the native Eastern oyster and the non-native species. Effects of options were examined for a diverse set of ecological resources and conditions for the Bay including oysters, submerged aquatic vegetation, phytoplankton, zooplankton, benthic invertebrates, blue crabs, fish, wildlife receptors, dissolved oxygen, and total suspended solids. A weight-of-evidence method based on available scientific evidence was also used to answer a set of questions developed by a science advisory panel. There was low risk that the Asian oyster would not provide ecosystem services similar to those afforded by the Eastern oyster; however, there is moderate to high risk that the Asian oyster would interact with and compete with the Eastern oyster. The potential for introduction and spread of diseases from the Asian oyster to other species in the Bay is considered negligible, but there is high risk that the Asian oyster would disperse outside of the Bay.

Application of an Ecological Risk Assessment for Evaluation of Alternatives Considered for Restoration of Oysters in Chesapeake Bay: Background and Approach

ABSTRACT Oyster populations in Chesapeake Bay, USA, declined precipitously over the past three decades, and on-going efforts to restore the native oysters to former abundance were considered to be ineffective. Maryland and Virginia natural resource agencies proposed the introduction of a non-native Asian oyster (Crassostrea ariakensis) that is resistant to diseases affecting the native oyster and well adapted to the Chesapeake Bay environment. Numerous stakeholders raised concerns about potential adverse consequences of an introduction of a non-native species into a new environment. In response, state and federal agencies determined that an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) should be prepared to address the environmental consequences of such an introduction as well as of seven other oyster restoration alternatives, including several involving only the native oyster. Preparation of an Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) of the proposed action as well as all alternatives was an integral element of EIS preparation. This series of articles describes several different analyses that contributed to and collectively comprised the ERA conducted as input to the EIS. The final article of this series in HERA describes how the ERA and EIS findings were taken into account in the final decision on the preferred restoration alternative by state and federal agencies.

Evaluating the Risk of Establishing a Self-Sustaining Population of Non-Native Oysters Through Large-Scale Aquaculture in Chesapeake Bay

ABSTRACT A multistep invasive species methodology was used to evaluate the probability that the deployment of sterile non-native oysters (Crassostrea ariakensis, called Asian oyster) in field-based aquaculture could give rise to a reproductive population in Chesapeake Bay. Several pathways that could potentially lead to the unintentional release of reproductive C. ariakensis from aquaculture were identified. For the four quantifiable pathways, a probability was estimated for each step based on knowledge of ecological rates. A conservative estimate for the number of reproductive C. ariakensis that could arise over one spawning season at a hypothetical aquaculture site was estimated. A statistical expansion of this probability estimated that it is highly likely that the cultivation of putatively sterile C. ariakensis would initiate a reproductive population in Chesapeake Bay over a 10-year time span. The potential benefits of restoration actions involving non-native species in estuarine ecosystems must be weighed against potential ecological risks. A probabilistic approach can provide a useful method for summarizing the risk of an unintended introduction that may occur despite a reasonable and presumably “safe” approach for realizing benefits of a non-native species in aquaculture. The results presented here have important implications for future proposals involving the commercial use of non-native species in natural ecosystems.

Role of Ecological Risk Assessment Findings in Agency Decision-Making Regarding Oyster Restoration in Chesapeake Bay

ABSTRACT Failure of on-going management programs to restore oyster populations in Chesapeake Bay, USA, prompted state and federal agencies to consider the introduction of the non-native Asian oyster (Crassostrea ariakensis). An ecological risk assessment (ERA) of the proposed introduction was an essential element in preparation of a programmatic environmental impact statement (PEIS). The ERA had to assess risks of not only the proposed action (Asian oyster introduction) but also of the eight alternatives evaluated in the PEIS. The ERA suggested that the risk that the Asian oyster would not provide ecosystem services similar to those afforded by the native Eastern oyster was low, but there was moderate uncertainty associated with that conclusion. There was a non-zero risk of self-sustaining Asian oyster populations becoming established even if aquaculture with triploid, purportedly sterile Asian oysters were to be permitted. Nearly all of the risk conclusions had associated moderate to high uncertainty, not providing the level of proof that the agencies felt sufficient to justify proceeding with any action involving the Asian oyster. The irreversible nature of an introduction of the species bolstered that decision. Maryland and Virginia agencies have implemented numerous actions focused on the native oyster, but the outcome of these on-going actions is not yet known.

Development and validation of a predictive model for the growth of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in post-harvest shellstock oysters

Information is limited about the growth and survival of naturally-occurring Vibrio parahaemolyticus in live oysters under commercially relevant storage conditions harvested from different regions and in different oyster species. This study produced a predictive model for the growth of naturally-occurring V. parahaemolyticus in live Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) harvested from the Chesapeake Bay, MD, USA and stored at 5–30°C until oysters gapped. The model was validated with model-independent data collected from Eastern oysters harvested from the Chesapeake Bay and Mobile Bay, AL, USA and Asian (C. ariakensis) oysters from the Chesapeake Bay, VA, USA. The effect of harvest season, region and water condition on growth rate (GR) was also tested. At each time interval, two samples consisting of six oysters each were analyzed by a direct-plating method for total V. parahaemolyticus. The Baranyi D-model was fitted to the total V. parahaemolyticus growth and survival data. A secondary model was produced using the square root model. V. parahaemolyticus slowly inactivated at 5 and 10°C with average rates of −0.002 and −0.001logcfu/h, respectively. The average GRs at 15, 20, 25, and 30°C were 0.038, 0.082, 0.228, and 0.219logcfu/h, respectively. The bias and accuracy factors of the secondary model for model-independent data were 1.36 and 1.46 for Eastern oysters from Mobile Bay and the Chesapeake Bay, respectively. V. parahaemolyticus GRs were markedly lower in Asian oysters. Harvest temperature, salinity, region and season had no effect on GRs. The observed GRs were less than those predicted by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's V. parahaemolyticus quantitative risk assessment.

New features of Asian Crassostrea oyster mitochondrial genomes: A novel alloacceptor tRNA gene recruitment and two novel ORFs

A feasible way to perform evolutionary analyses is to compare characters divergent enough to observe significant differences, but sufficiently similar to exclude saturation of the differences that occurred. Thus, comparisons of invertebrate mitochondrial (mt) genomes at low taxonomic levels can be extremely helpful in investigating patterns of variation and evolutionary dynamics of genomes, as intermediate stages of the process may be identified. Fortunately, in this study, we newly sequenced the mt genome of the eighth member of Asian Crassostrea oysters which can provide necessary intermediate characters for us to believe that the variation of Crassostrea mt genomes is considerably greater than previously acknowledged. Several new features of Asian Crassostrea oyster mitochondrial genomes were revealed, and our results are particularly significant as they 1) suggest a novel model of alloacceptor tRNA gene recruitment, namely “vertical” tRNA gene recruitment, which can be successfully used to explain the origination of the unusually additional trnK and trnQ genes (annotated as trnK2 and trnQ2 respectively) in the mt genomes of the five Asian oysters, and we speculate that this recruitment progress may be a common phenomenon in the evolution of the tRNA multigene family; 2) reveal the existence of two additional, lineage-specific, mtDNA-encoded genes that may originate from duplication of nad2 followed by rapid evolutionary change. Each of these two genes encodes a unique amino terminal signal peptide, thus each might possess an unknown function; and 3) identify for the first time the atp8 gene in oysters. The present study thus gives further credence to the comparison of congeneric bivalves as a meaningful strategy to investigate mt genomic evolutionary trends in genome organization, tRNA multigene family, and gene loss and/or duplication that are difficult to undertake at higher taxonomic levels. In particular, our study provides new evidence for the identification and characterization of ORFs in the “non-coding region” of animal mt genomes.

Molecular species diagnosis confirmed the occurrence of Kumamoto oyster Crassostrea sikamea in Korean waters

In order to develop an appropriate natural resource management policy, it is important to elucidate the cryptic habitats of species. Oyster species are likely to have such unrecognized habitats owing to the difficulty involved in morphological species identification. In this study, we discovered a novel cryptic habitat of the Kumamoto oyster Crassostrea sikamea, a sibling species of the Pacific oyster C. gigas, in Korean waters. We collected 50 oyster samples from Suncheon Bay, located in the southern Korean Peninsula, among which 20 individuals of C. sikamea, 29 of C. gigas, and one C. sikamea/C. gigas hybrid were identified based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers. There were no significant differences in shell morphology between the two species, which is consistent with how difficult it is to delineate them based on their shell features. Our identification of this novel C. sikamea habitat should help to improve the resource management of East Asian oysters.

Complete mitochondrial DNA sequence of the European flat oyster Ostrea edulis confirms Ostreidae classification

BackgroundBecause of its typical architecture, inheritance and small size, mitochondrial (mt) DNA is widely used for phylogenetic studies. Gene order is generally conserved in most taxa although some groups show considerable variation. This is particularly true in the phylum Mollusca, especially in the Bivalvia. During the last few years, there have been significant increases in the number of complete mitochondrial sequences available. For bivalves, 35 complete mitochondrial genomes are now available in GenBank, a number that has more than doubled in the last three years, representing 6 families and 23 genera. In the current study, we determined the complete mtDNA sequence of O. edulis, the European flat oyster. We present an analysis of features of its gene content and genome organization in comparison with other Ostrea, Saccostrea and Crassostrea species.ResultsThe Ostrea edulis mt genome is 16 320 bp in length and codes for 37 genes (12 protein-coding genes, 2 rRNAs and 23 tRNAs) on the same strand. As in other Ostreidae, O. edulis mt genome contains a split of the rrnL gene and a duplication of trnM. The tRNA gene set of O. edulis, Ostrea denselamellosa and Crassostrea virginica are identical in having 23 tRNA genes, in contrast to Asian oysters, which have 25 tRNA genes (except for C. ariakensis with 24). O. edulis and O. denselamellosa share the same gene order, but differ from other Ostreidae and are closer to Crassostrea than to Saccostrea. Phylogenetic analyses reinforce the taxonomic classification of the 3 families Ostreidae, Mytilidae and Pectinidae. Within the Ostreidae family the results also reveal a closer relationship between Ostrea and Saccostrea than between Ostrea and Crassostrea.ConclusionsOstrea edulis mitogenomic analyses show a high level of conservation within the genus Ostrea, whereas they show a high level of variation within the Ostreidae family. These features provide useful information for further evolutionary analysis of oyster mitogenomes.

Complete mitochondrial DNA sequence of Crassostrea nippona: comparative and phylogenomic studies on seven commercial Crassostrea species

The complete mitochondrial genome of Crassostrea nippona was determined and compared with six other Crassostrea mitogenomes from GenBank in an attempt to shed light on the evolutionary relatedness within Crassostrea. The total length of the mitogenome was 20,030 bp for C. nippona, which was the largest among seven Crassostrea mitogenomes. Among six Asian oysters, the gene order of mitochondrial DNA was identical except for C. nippona with a transposition of trnG. While the American oyster C. virginica and Asian oysters showed broad differences in gene order with relocation of most tRNA genes and indels of duplicated tRNAs and rrnS, indicating the relatively distant relationships between the American oyster and Asian oysters. Different from other six Crassostrea oysters, C. nippona had two repeats of 66 bp in non-coding regions. Pairwise divergence among the seven Crassostrea oysters based on DNA sequences of 12 protein-coding genes ranged from 3.1 to 44.4% (Kimura two-parameter distance, K2P). The close relationship between C. nippona and C. hongkongensis was revealed by K2P of 18.9%. Phylogenetic analyses robustly revealed Crassostrea monophyly, with C. virginica at the basal position. The results of phylogenetic analyses strongly supported C. gigas and C. angulata had the closest relationship, with C. sikamea being the sister taxon. These findings presented here provide a better insight into the relationships within Crassostrea and will be useful for further evolution studies of oysters.

Unusual conservation of mitochondrial gene order in Crassostreaoysters: evidence for recent speciation in Asia

BackgroundOysters are morphologically plastic and hence difficult subjects for taxonomic and evolutionary studies. It is long been suspected, based on the extraordinary species diversity observed, that Asia Pacific is the epicenter of oyster speciation. To understand the species diversity and its evolutionary history, we collected five Crassostrea species from Asia and sequenced their complete mitochondrial (mt) genomes in addition to two newly released Asian oysters (C. iredalei and Saccostrea mordax) for a comprehensive analysis.ResultsThe six Asian Crassostrea mt genomes ranged from 18,226 to 22,446 bp in size, and all coded for 39 genes (12 proteins, 2 rRNAs and 25 tRNAs) on the same strand. Their genomes contained a split of the rrnL gene and duplication of trnM, trnK and trnQ genes. They shared the same gene order that differed from an Atlantic sister species by as many as nine tRNA changes (6 transpositions and 3 duplications) and even differed significantly from S. mordax in protein-coding genes. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that the six Asian Crassostrea species emerged between 3 and 43 Myr ago, while the Atlantic species evolved 83 Myr ago.ConclusionsThe complete conservation of gene order in the six Asian Crassostrea species over 43 Myr is highly unusual given the remarkable rate of rearrangements in their sister species and other bivalves. It provides strong evidence for the recent speciation of the six Crassostrea species in Asia. It further indicates that changes in mt gene order may not be strictly a function of time but subject to other constraints that are presently not well understood.

A fine dividing line

One of the thorniest debates among ecologists is whether they should become involved in policy making and politics. As many Ecological Society of America (ESA) Presidents – most recently Sunny Power, at the 2009 ESA Annual Meeting – have noted, there has always been some tension between ESA members who believe ecologists should focus solely on their research and those who assert that they and their colleagues should engage in policy outreach, making ecological knowledge relevant to decision makers. As the famous saying goes, “You can't please all of the people all of the time”, and nowhere is this more apparent than when ESA steps forward to provide scientific information to policy makers on the environmental issues of the day. Whatever the topic, and whatever form this information takes (whether it's an ESA position statement or an editorial or columnist's piece in Frontiers), some members will argue that ESA isn't being bold enough, while others worry either that the Society is providing information they disagree with or that it has no business being involved in a particular issue in the first place. When Frontiers was launched, the decision was made to create something that would go beyond the recognized boundaries of a traditional scientific journal. The plan was to include high-quality, peer-reviewed papers, but authors would be encouraged to discuss the implications of their research for decision makers and resource managers in the Conclusions section of their papers. The “In a Nutshell” section was placed on the first page of every Review and Concepts & Questions article specifically so that non-scientific readers (eg time-pressed policy makers) could quickly and easily grasp the main points of the paper, and could then decide whether the information warranted further investigation. The journal would also feature editorial writers and columnists who could discuss topics (including controversial ones), and readers could argue about these issues in the letters section of the journal or on Ecolog-L, the Society's electronic discussion forum. As with the ESA as a whole, some members have occasionally been angered by a piece published in Frontiers, whereas others have accused us of being too cowardly to really dig in to sensitive topics, such as human population growth/immigration, economic policies, and other “hot button” issues. As we said, “you can't please…”. In the September 2008 issue of Frontiers, for example, Don Strong wrote a passionate editorial in defense of ecologists labeling themselves “environmentalists”, and, in so doing, touched a nerve among some readers. The greatest danger, as one member wrote in a letter to Write Back, was that policy makers would label ecologists as just another advocacy group and no longer respect or value the information they provided. So where is the dividing line between a professional scientific society and an advocacy group when it comes to providing ecological and environmental information? ESA is one of hundreds of organizations with a presence in Washington, DC. As a scientific society, what distinguishes it from advocacy organizations is that the Society works to inform decision makers, based on the ecological expertise of its 10 000 members. In contrast to advocacy organizations, ESA doesn't make the policy decisions in advance and then lobby policy makers to act accordingly. Instead, through congressional briefings, position statements, and one-on-one meetings, the Society lays out a menu of options – based on the best available science – for decision makers to consider. Over the past year, ESA has offered an ecological voice on issues ranging from a proposal to introduce the Asian oyster to the Chesapeake Bay, possible changes to the Endangered Species Act, and the teaching of evolution in state public schools. ESA members serving on the Society's Rapid Response Team (RRT) have pledged to “drop everything” and respond swiftly to requests for scientific input on pending legislation, contribute to amicus briefs to the Supreme Court, or come to DC and brief policy makers in person. Congressional staffers repeatedly express their appreciation to these members for their willingness to discuss the issues and address their questions. As ecological science and ESA continue to grow in relevance and visibility, not everyone will be happy with the Society's activities, as it offers the scientific knowledge and expertise of its members as a resource for national, regional, or local decision makers. And yet, for the Society to do nothing and say nothing would be to miss a tremendous opportunity to put ecological and environmental science to work in the policy arena, helping to make decisions that could have broad-ranging consequences for us all.

Annual Reports To Council Ecological Society of America August 2009

<i>Annual Reports To Council</i> Ecological Society of America August 2009

18–19 November 2008 Washington, D.C

18–19 November 2008 Washington, D.C