As Α-linolenic Acid Research Articles

The physicochemical stability and in vivo gastrointestinal fates of flaxseed oil bodies with the introduction of soluble flaxseed gum polysaccharides

The natural oil bodies (OBs) were considered minimally processed entities for delivering bioactive lipids and minor lipid concomitants, such as α-linolenic acid (ALA), tocopherols, etc. when incorporated into food systems. The current study investigated the physicochemical stability and in vivo gastrointestinal digestion of flaxseed OBs with the introduction of soluble flaxseed gum polysaccharides (SFG), which always consistently coexisted in flaxseed milk. The results showed that the particle sizes of flaxseed OB emulsions consistently decreased by 37.46% (p < 0.05), while the zeta potential values gradually increased by 60.91% (p < 0.05) as the SFG concentrations raised from 0.1% to 0.5% (wt %). SFG improved the physical stability of flaxseed OB emulsions by preventing bridging flocculation among adjacent OBs, and achieving the movement restriction of single OBs via the direct interface anchoring and network structure formation in bulk aqueous phase. SFG apparently suppressed the gastrointestinal lipolysis rate of flaxseed OBs due to the complex coacervation with intrinsic interfacial proteins, subsequent deep encapsulation and gastric emptying delaying of OB remnants. Then, the slower micellar absorption and chylomicron transport within rat enterocytes were occurred, contributing to the suppressed ALA accumulation and subsequent conversion into n-3 long chain fatty acids in rat upper jejunum. Collectively, the introduction of SFG in flaxseed OBs at high concentration allows lower intestinal ALA bioaccessibility.

Exploring lipid health indices and protein quality in ninety Indian linseed varieties by comprehensive analysis of fatty acid composition, lignan content, and amino acid composition

Biochemical profiling of 90 linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) varieties was done to have insights into their health benefits and nutritional properties. The analysis of fatty acid (FA) composition revealed 5 major FAs as α-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), oleic acid (OA), palmitic acid (PA), and stearic acid (SA) ranging from 1.68% to 59.19%, 5.61–62.44%, 18.14–45.54%, 5.69–9.5%, and 3.94–10.29%, respectively. Secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG) content varied significantly with a wide range of 0.02–3.60% in the seed with highest SDG content recorded so far as 3.60% in variety KL-226. Amino acid (AA) composition analysis revealed the variation in average amino acid content of essential amino acids (EAA) (His, Thr Val, Met, Trp, Phe, Ile, Leu, Lys) and non-essential amino acids (NEAA) (Asp, Glu, Ser, Gly, Arg, Ala, Tyr, Cys). Total NEAA content ranged from 3.24% to 23.69% while total EAA content ranged from 1.89% to 14.89%. Lipid heath indices such as atherogenicity index, thrombogenicity index, cholestrolemic index and peroxidisability index along with other fatty acid ratios such as n-6/n-3 ratio, UFA/SFA, PUFA/SFA were calculated to determine the stability of the varieties against auto-oxidation. It also revealed the positive effect of all varieties providing protection against atherosclerosis, coronary heart diseases, cancer and inflammatory diseases. Oleic desaturation ratio (ODR) and linoleic desaturation ratio (LDR) calculated to determine the desaturation efficiency of fatty acids, while protein efficiency ratio (PER) value calculated using amino acid composition determine the nutritional quality of protein. PER value ranged from 1.92 to 4.12 making all 90 varieties a good quality protein plant source. Principal component analysis revealed a significant variation between the fatty acid composition, amino acid composition and SDG content with a total variation of 69.95%. Hierarchical cluster analysis calculated using Pearson correlation coefficient revealed that 89 varieties are mostly similar except TL-99 variety.

Highlighting the potential of Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 as platform to produce α-linolenic acid through an updated genome-scale metabolic modeling.

Cyanobacteria are prokaryotic organisms that capture energy from sunlight using oxygenic photosynthesis and transform CO2 into products of interest such as fatty acids. Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 is a model cyanobacterium efficiently engineered to accumulate high levels of omega-3 fatty acids. However, its exploitation as a microbial cell factory requires a better knowledge of its metabolism, which can be approached by using systems biology tools. To fulfill this objective, we worked out an updated, more comprehensive, and functional genome-scale model of this freshwater cyanobacterium, which was termed iMS837. The model includes 837 genes, 887 reactions, and 801 metabolites. When compared with previous models of S. elongatus PCC 7942, iMS837 is more complete in key physiological and biotechnologically relevant metabolic hubs, such as fatty acid biosynthesis, oxidative phosphorylation, photosynthesis, and transport, among others. iMS837 shows high accuracy when predicting growth performance and gene essentiality. The validated model was further used as a test-bed for the assessment of suitable metabolic engineering strategies, yielding superior production of non-native omega-3 fatty acids such as α-linolenic acid (ALA). As previously reported, the computational analysis demonstrated that fabF overexpression is a feasible metabolic target to increase ALA production, whereas deletion and overexpression of fabH cannot be used for this purpose. Flux scanning based on enforced objective flux, a strain-design algorithm, allowed us to identify not only previously known gene overexpression targets that improve fatty acid synthesis, such as Acetyl-CoA carboxylase and β-ketoacyl-ACP synthase I, but also novel potential targets that might lead to higher ALA yields. Systematic sampling of the metabolic space contained in iMS837 identified a set of ten additional knockout metabolic targets that resulted in higher ALA productions. In silico simulations under photomixotrophic conditions with acetate or glucose as a carbon source boosted ALA production levels, indicating that photomixotrophic nutritional regimens could be potentially exploited in vivo to improve fatty acid production in cyanobacteria. Overall, we show that iMS837 is a powerful computational platform that proposes new metabolic engineering strategies to produce biotechnologically relevant compounds, using S. elongatus PCC 7942 as non-conventional microbial cell factory.

Detoxification Cytochrome P450s (CYPs) in Families 1-3 Produce Functional Oxylipins from Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids.

This manuscript reviews the CYP-mediated production of oxylipins and the current known function of these diverse set of oxylipins with emphasis on the detoxification CYPs in families 1-3. Our knowledge of oxylipin function has greatly increased over the past 3-7 years with new theories on stability and function. This includes a significant amount of new information on oxylipins produced from linoleic acid (LA) and the omega-3 PUFA-derived oxylipins such as α-linolenic acid (ALA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). However, there is still a lack of knowledge regarding the primary CYP responsible for producing specific oxylipins, and a lack of mechanistic insight for some clinical associations between outcomes and oxylipin levels. In addition, the role of CYPs in the production of oxylipins as signaling molecules for obesity, energy utilization, and development have increased greatly with potential interactions between diet, endocrinology, and pharmacology/toxicology due to nuclear receptor mediated CYP induction, CYP inhibition, and receptor interactions/crosstalk. The potential for diet-diet and diet-drug/chemical interactions is high given that these promiscuous CYPs metabolize a plethora of different endogenous and exogenous chemicals.

Genomic basis of the giga-chromosomes and giga-genome of tree peony Paeonia ostii

Tree peony (Paeonia ostii) is an economically important ornamental plant native to China. It is also notable for its seed oil, which is abundant in unsaturated fatty acids such as α-linolenic acid (ALA). Here, we report chromosome-level genome assembly (12.28 Gb) of P. ostii. In contrast to monocots with giant genomes, tree peony does not appear to have undergone lineage-specific whole-genome duplication. Instead, explosive LTR expansion in the intergenic regions within a short period (~ two million years) may have contributed to the formation of its giga-genome. In addition, expansion of five types of histone encoding genes may have helped maintain the giga-chromosomes. Further, we conduct genome-wide association studies (GWAS) on 448 accessions and show expansion and high expression of several genes in the key nodes of fatty acid biosynthetic pathway, including SAD, FAD2 and FAD3, may function in high level of ALAs synthesis in tree peony seeds. Moreover, by comparing with cultivated tree peony (P. suffruticosa), we show that ectopic expression of class A gene AP1 and reduced expression of class C gene AG may contribute to the formation of petaloid stamens. Genomic resources reported in this study will be valuable for studying chromosome/genome evolution and tree peony breeding.

The molecular mechanism of phytosphingosine binding to FFAR4/GPR120 differs from that of other fatty acids.

Free fatty acid receptor 4 (FFAR4)/GPR120 comprises a receptor for medium‐ and long‐chain fatty acids. We previously identified phytosphingosine (PHS) as a novel ligand of FFAR4. Although many natural FFAR4 ligands have carboxyl groups, PHS does not, thus suggesting that binding to FFAR4 is driven by a completely different mechanism than other natural ligands such as α‐linolenic acid (ALA). To test this hypothesis, we performed docking simulation analysis using a FFAR4 homology model based on a protein model derived from the crystal structure of activated turkey beta‐1 adrenoceptor. The docking simulation revealed that the probable hydrogen bonds to FFAR4 differ between various ligands. In particular, binding was predicted between R264 of the FFAR4 and the oxygen of the carboxylate group in ALA, as well as between E249 of the FFAR4 and the oxygen of the hydroxy group at the C4‐position in PHS. Alanine substitution at E249 (E249A) dramatically reduced PHS‐induced FFAR4 activation but demonstrated a weaker effect on ALA‐induced FFAR4 activation. Kinetic analysis and K m values clearly demonstrated that the E249A substitution resulted in reduced affinity for PHS but not for ALA. Additionally, we observed that sphingosine, lacking a hydroxyl group at C4‐position, could not activate FFAR4. Our data show that E249 of the FFAR4 receptor is crucial for binding to the hydroxy group at the C4‐position in PHS, and this is a completely different molecular mechanism of binding from ALA. Because GPR120 agonists have attracted attention as treatments for type 2 diabetes, our findings may provide new insights into their development.

Enrichment of alpha-linolenic acid in rodent diet reduced oxidative stress and inflammation during myocardial infarction

Myocardial infarction (MI) is an irreversible event caused by cardiac ischemia and may be fatal. Studies reported that increased intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) namely, eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and lower the incidence of MI. Nonetheless, the cardioprotective effect of plant n-3-PUFA such as α-linolenic acid (ALA) in the diet is not conclusive. In this study, Sprague Dawley rats were supplemented with isocaloric diets enriched with ALA rich flaxseed (FS) and flaxseed oil (FSO), and normal chow (Control) for 4 weeks. MI was induced by isoproterenol (ISO) injection. Results showed that all ALA-enriched diets displayed cardioprotection against MI. The heart to body weight ratio, plasma LDH activity and plasma cTnI were reduced compared to ISO and was prominent in FS diet. ALA and EPA were up-regulated in both tissues and plasma by ALA-diets compared to Control and remained higher than ISO groups. Notably, LOX-mediated HETEs decreased whereas LOX-mediated HDHAs were elevated in both tissues and plasma of ALA-enriched diets compared to ISO. In addition, non-enzymatic oxidized products from arachidonic acid including 15-F2t-IsoP were reduced in both tissues and plasma of MI rats supplemented with ALA-enriched diets while those from n-3 PUFAs including F4-NeuroPs, PhytoPs and PhytoFs were elevated compared to control. ALA-enriched diets particularly flaxseed reduced gene expressions of inflammatory cytokines namely IL-1β, IL-6 and TNFα and prevented the down regulation of antioxidant catalase in the heart tissues. In conclusion ALA-enriched diets potentially exerted cardioprotection through the regulation of anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative mediators from n-3 PUFA autooxidation.

Targeting FFA1 and FFA4 receptors in cancer-induced cachexia.

Free fatty acid (FFA) receptors FFA1 and FFA4 are omega-3 molecular targets in metabolic diseases; however, their function in cancer cachexia remains unraveled. We assessed the role of FFA1 and FFA4 receptors in the mouse model of cachexia induced by Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) cell implantation. Naturally occurring ligands such as α-linolenic acid (ALA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), the synthetic FFA1/FFA4 agonists GW9508 and TUG891, or the selective FFA1 GW1100 or FFA4 AH7614 antagonists were tested. FFA1 and FFA4 expression and other cachexia-related parameters were evaluated. GW9508 and TUG891 decreased tumor weight in LLC-bearing mice. Regarding cachexia-related end points, ALA, DHA, and the preferential FFA1 agonist GW9508 rescued body weight loss. Skeletal muscle mass was reestablished by ALA treatment, but this was not reflected in the fiber cross-sectional areas (CSA) measurement. Otherwise, TUG891, GW1100, or AH7614 reduced the muscle fiber CSA. Treatments with ALA, GW9508, GW1100, or AH7614 restored white adipose tissue (WAT) depletion. As for inflammatory outcomes, ALA improved anemia, whereas GW9508 reduced splenomegaly. Concerning behavioral impairments, ALA and GW9508 rescued locomotor activity, whereas ALA improved motor coordination. Additionally, DHA improved grip strength. Notably, GW9508 restored abnormal brain glucose metabolism in different brain regions. The GW9508 treatment increased leptin levels, without altering uncoupling protein-1 downregulation in visceral fat. LLC-cachectic mice displayed FFA1 upregulation in subcutaneous fat, but not in visceral fat or gastrocnemius muscle, whereas FFA4 was unaltered. Overall, the present study shed new light on FFA1 and FFA4 receptors' role in metabolic disorders, indicating FFA1 receptor agonism as a promising strategy in mitigating cancer cachexia.

Dietary n-6 and n-3 PUFA alter the free oxylipin profile differently in male and female rat hearts.

Oxylipins are bioactive lipid mediators synthesised from PUFA. The most well-known oxylipins are the eicosanoids derived from arachidonic acid (ARA), and many of them influence cardiac physiology in health and disease. Oxylipins are also formed from other n-3 and n-6 PUFA such as α-linolenic acid (ALA), EPA, DHA and linoleic acid (LA), but fundamental data on the heart oxylipin profile, and the effect of diet and sex on this profile, are lacking. Therefore, weanling female and male Sprague-Dawley rats were given American Institute of Nutrition (AIN)-93G-based diets modified in oil composition to provide higher levels of ALA, EPA, DHA, LA and LA + ALA, compared with control diets. After 6 weeks, free oxylipins in rat hearts were increased primarily by their precursor PUFA, except for EPA oxylipins, which were increased not only by dietary EPA but also by dietary ALA or DHA. Dietary DHA had a greater effect than ALA or EPA on reducing ARA oxylipins. An exception to the dietary n-3 PUFA-lowering effects on ARA oxylipins was observed for several ARA-derived PG metabolites that were higher in rats given EPA diets. Higher dietary LA increased LA oxylipins, but it had no effect on ARA oxylipins. Overall, heart oxylipins were higher in female rats, but this depended on dietary treatment: the female oxylipin:male oxylipin ratio was higher in rats provided the ALA compared with the DHA diet, with other diet groups having ratios in between. In conclusion, individual PUFA and sex have unique and interactive effects on the rat heart free oxylipin profile.

Chia (Salvia hispanica) experiment at a 30˚ N site in Sichuan Basin, China

ABSTRACT: The mysterious ancient Mesoamerican Indian crop chia (Salvia hispanica) is revived and expanding worldwide due to its richness of valuable nutraceuticals such as α-linolenic acid (ALA), antioxidants, food fiber, gels, and proteins. We carried out a pilot experiment on chia planting in non-frost Sichuan Basin, at Hechuan Base (30˚0′ 43″ N, 106˚7′ 41″ E, 216 m), Southwest University, Chongqing, China. The split-plot trial contained two factors, 3 spring-summer sowing times as main plots, and 6 densities as subplots, with 3 replicates. Phenological, botanical, adversity, yield, and seed quality traits were investigated. Plants were very tall, suffered from lodging, and flowered in mid-October. Sichuan Basin can be considered as a north edge for growing chia, with low yield (680 kg/hectare) because of insufficient seed filling and maturation in autumn-winter season (1000-seed weight of 1.14 g). However, its ALA content is 5 percent points higher than the seed-donor commercial bottle (65.06%/63.96% VS 59.35%/59.74% for black/white seeds), accompanied by decrease oleic and stearic acid, while linoleic acid and palmitic acid are equivalent. Considering its short-day habit, it is recommended to try sowing in middle summer (from late June to early August) to avoid too long growing period, excessive vegetative growth, and waste of field and climate resources caused by spring-summer sowing. Furthermore, winter sowing of chia with mulch cover could also be tried, with an expectation of harvesting in summer. Most importantly, only when the photoperiod-insensitive early flowering stocks are created, chia can be recommended as a low-risk crop to the farmers of this region.

Cosmetic and Therapeutic Applications of Fish Oil's Fatty Acids on the Skin.

Fish oil has been broadly reported as a potential supplement to ameliorate the severity of some skin disorders such as photoaging, skin cancer, allergy, dermatitis, cutaneous wounds, and melanogenesis. There has been increasing interest in the relationship of fish oil with skin protection and homeostasis, especially with respect to the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). The other PUFAs, such as α-linolenic acid (ALA) and linoleic acid (LA), also show a beneficial effect on the skin. The major mechanisms of PUFAs for attenuating cutaneous inflammation are the competition with the inflammatory arachidonic acid and the inhibition of proinflammatory eicosanoid production. On the other hand, PUFAs in fish oil can be the regulators that affect the synthesis and activity of cytokines for promoting wound healing. A systemic review was conducted to demonstrate the association between fish oil supplementation and the benefits to the skin. The following describes the different cosmetic and therapeutic approaches using fatty acids derived from fish oil, especially ALA, LA, DHA, and EPA. This review summarizes the cutaneous application of fish oil and the related fatty acids in the cell-based, animal-based, and clinical models. The research data relating to fish oil treatment of skin disorders suggest a way forward for generating advances in cosmetic and dermatological uses.

Directly quantified dietary n-3 fatty acid intakes of Canadian toddlers are lower than current dietary recommendations

To date, few studies have evaluated the intake of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in young North American children and current estimates are based on indirect approaches which have concerning limitations. Furthermore, there is a lack of available knowledge regarding the proportion of children meeting current dietary recommendations for the consumption of long-chain n-3 PUFA as α-linolenic acid (ALA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)/docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The objective of the present study was to directly quantify the intake of n-3 PUFA in toddlers aged 2 to 3 years and determine if intakes met international recommendations. Given the low intakes of fish in North America, we predicted that n-3 PUFA intakes in toddlers would fall short of recommended intakes. Duplicated diets were collected from 20 Canadian children over a 3-day period. Diets were then directly analyzed by gas chromatography. Daily intakes (means ± SEM) of ALA, EPA, and DHA were as follows: 710.1 ± 69.7, 9.6 ± 2.9, and 19.2 ± 6.8 mg/d, respectively. Compared with North American dietary reference intakes, 45% of our children met the minimal recommended intake of ALA, whereas only 5% consumed the target intake of EPA plus DHA. These results indicate that Canadian children aged 2 to 3 years struggle to consume adequate intakes of the n-3 PUFA ALA and particularly EPA/DHA; efforts to narrow this gap should focus on increasing EPA and DHA intakes by appropriate fish/seafood consumption along with enriched foods or supplements if necessary.

Impact of inclusion of flaxseed oil (pre-emulsified or encapsulated) on the physical characteristics of chicken sausages

Functional meat products containing elevated omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids, such as α-linolenic acid (ALA), may be formulated by replacing animal fat with flaxseed oil, but the addition of flaxseed oil to meat products can adversely affect sensory properties, particularly textural properties. The objective of this study was to investigate how different methods of flaxseed oil incorporation into chicken sausages affected their physical characteristics, as assessed by proximate composition, water holding capacity, water and fat binding capacity, cook loss, texture profile analysis (TPA), rheological analysis and nuclear magnetic resonance relaxometry (NMR). Sausages were formulated to contain enough ALA to meet the European Food Safety Authority requirements for nutrient and health claims (0.6 g per 100 g and 100 kcal) and compared with a non-oil containing control (C). Flaxseed oil, as a source of ALA, was incorporated in the following forms: direct addition (O); pre-emulsified (E); encapsulated and freeze-dried (F); encapsulated with cross-linker genipin and freeze-dried (G); encapsulated and spray-dried (S). When compared to the other formulations, the F and G formulations had lower values for storage and loss modulus and for all TPA measurements (p ≤ 0.05). G and S formulations had lower values (p ≤ 0.05) for cook loss than the other formulations. NMR showed that water populations in the G and S formulations behaved differently during heating compared to the other formulations. In summary, the physical characteristics of sausages were affected by flaxseed oil incorporation method, with encapsulation methods having the greatest impact compared to direct or pre-emulsified oil addition.

α-Linolenic acid-derived metabolites from gut lactic acid bacteria induce differentiation of anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages through G protein-coupled receptor 40.

Among dietary fatty acids with immunologic effects, ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as α-linolenic acid (ALA), have been considered as factors that contribute to the differentiation of M2-type macrophages (M2 macrophages). In this study, we examined the effect of ALA and its gut lactic acid bacteria metabolites 13-hydroxy-9(Z),15(Z)-octadecadienoic acid (13-OH) and 13-oxo-9(Z),15(Z)-octadecadienoic acid (13-oxo) on the differentiation of M2 macrophages from bone marrow-derived cells (BMDCs) and investigated the underlying mechanisms. BMDCs were stimulated with ALA, 13-OH, or 13-oxo in the presence of IL-4 or IL-13 for 24 h, and significant increases in M2 macrophage markers CD206 and Arginase-1 (Arg1) were observed. In addition, M2 macrophage phenotypes were less prevalent following cotreatment with GPCR40 antagonists or inhibitors of PLC-β and MEK under these conditions, suggesting that GPCR40 signaling is involved in the regulation of M2 macrophage differentiation. In further experiments, remarkable M2 macrophage accumulation was observed in the lamina propria of the small intestine of C57BL/6 mice after intragastric treatments with ALA, 13-OH, or 13-oxo at 1 g/kg of body weight per day for 3 d. These findings suggest a novel mechanism of M2 macrophage differentiation involving fatty acids from gut lactic acid bacteria and GPCR40 signaling.-Ohue-Kitano, R., Yasuoka, Y., Goto, T., Kitamura, N., Park, S.-B., Kishino, S., Kimura, I., Kasubuchi, M., Takahashi, H., Li, Y., Yeh, Y.-S., Jheng, H.-F., Iwase, M., Tanaka, M., Masuda, S., Inoue, T., Yamakage, H., Kusakabe, T., Tani, F., Shimatsu, A., Takahashi, N., Ogawa, J., Satoh-Asahara, N., Kawada, T. α-Linolenic acid-derived metabolites from gut lactic acid bacteria induce differentiation of anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages through G protein-coupled receptor 40.

Chemical Characterization of Six Microalgae with Potential Utility for Food Application

AbstractMicroalgae contain high levels of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, and have found a useful application in enhancing the nutritional value of foods. These organisms can also synthesize long‐chain fatty acids in the form of triacylglycerols, such as α‐linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), linolenic acid (LA), γ‐linolenic acid (GLA) and arachidonic acid (AA). The aim of this study was to determine the chemical composition and measure protein, carbohydrates, fibers, lipids as well as the fatty acids composition of six microalgae species with potential application in the food industry. Two freshwater species, Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina platensis, and four marine species, Nannochloropsis oculata, Nannochloropsis gaditana, Porphyridium cruentum, and Phaeodactylum tricornutum, were used in the experiments. Intracellular protein was the most prominent algal component (42.8–35.4 %), followed by carbohydrate + fiber (32.3–28.6 %), and lipids (15.6–5.3 %). N. gaditana is rich in saturated fatty acids, mainly palmitic acid (5.1 g/100 g), while the cells of S. platensis and C. vulgaris algae are abundant in GLA (1.9 g/100 g) and ALA (2.8 g/100 g) acids, respectively. P. cruentum differs from other algae, because it contains a large amount of AA (3.7 g/100 g). The marine microorganisms N. oculata and P. tricornutum are also a source of essential long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC‐PUFA‐ɷ3), mainly composed of EPA and DHA. Our results suggest that the freshwater species C. vulgaris and S. platensis are attractive nutritional supplements because of their low fiber and high protein/carbohydrate contents, while the marine species P. tricornutum and N. oculata can enrich foods with LC‐PUFA‐ω3, because of their favorable ω3/ω6 ratio.

Intake of essential fatty acids in Indonesian children: secondary analysis of data from a nationally representative survey.

Essential fatty acids (EFA) such as α-linolenic acid (ALA) and linoleic acid (LA) are needed for healthy growth and development of children. Worldwide, reliable intake data of EFA are often lacking. The objective of this study was to investigate dietary intake of EFA in Indonesian children. Dietary intake data of 4-12-year-old children (n 45,821) from a nationally representative Indonesian survey were used to estimate median intake and distribution of population fatty acid intake. Missing data on individual fatty acids in the Indonesian food composition table were complemented through chemical analyses of national representative food samples and imputation of data from the US nutrient database. Nutrient adequacy ratios were calculated as a percentage of FAO/WHO intake recommendations. The medians of total fat intake of the children was 26·7 (10th-90th percentile 11·2-40·0) percentage of total daily energy (%E). Intakes of fatty acids were 4·05 (10th-90th percentile 1·83-7·22) %E for total PUFA, 3·36 (10th-90th percentile 1·14-6·29) %E for LA and 0·20 (10th-90th percentile 0·07-0·66) %E for ALA. Median intake of PUFA was 67 % and that of ALA 40 % of the minimum amounts recommended by FAO/WHO. These data indicate that a majority of Indonesian children has intakes of PUFA and specifically ALA that are lower than recommended intake levels. Total fat and LA intakes may be suboptimal for a smaller yet considerable proportion of children. Public health initiatives should provide practical guidelines to promote consumption of PUFA-rich foods.

Fish oil and flax seed oil supplemented diets increase FFAR4 expression in the rat colon.

Omega-3 fatty acids, such as α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) that have long been associated with anti-inflammatory activity and general benefit toward human health. Over the last decade, the identification of a family of cell-surface G protein-coupled receptors that bind and are activated by free-fatty acids, including omega-3 fatty acids, suggest that many effects of PUFA are receptor-mediated. One such receptor, free-fatty acid receptor-4 (FFAR4), previously described as GPR120, has been shown to modulate anti-inflammatory and insulin-sensitizing effects in response to PUFA such as ALA and DHA. Additionally, FFAR4 stimulates secretion of the insulin secretagogue glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) from the GI tract and acts as a dietary sensor to regulate energy availability. The aim of the current study was to assess the effects of dietary omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on FFAR4 expression in the rat colon. Sprague-Dawley rats were fed control soybean oil diets or alternatively, diets supplemented with either fish oil, which is enriched in DHA and EPA, or flaxseed oil, which is enriched in ALA, for 7 weeks. GLP-1 and blood glucose levels were monitored weekly and at the end of the study period, expression of FFAR4 and the inflammatory marker TNF-α was assessed. Our findings indicate that GLP-1 and blood glucose levels were unaffected by omega-3 fatty acid supplementation, however, animals that were fed fish or flaxseed oil-supplemented diets had significantly heightened colonic FFAR4 and actin expression, and reduced expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α compared to animals fed control diets. These results suggest that similar to ingestion of other fats, dietary-intake of omega-3 fatty acids can alter FFAR4 expression within the colon.

Effect of the fat composition of a single high-fat meal on inflammatory markers in healthy young women

The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of a single high-fat meal with different fat quality on circulating inflammatory markers and gene expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) to elucidate the role of fat quality on postprandial inflammation. A postprandial study with fourteen healthy females consuming three test meals with different fat quality was performed. Test days were separated by 2 weeks. Fasting and postprandial blood samples at 3 and 6h after intake were analysed. The test meal consisted of three cakes enriched with coconut fat (43% energy as saturated fat and 1% energy as α-linolenic acid (ALA)), linseed oil (14% energy as ALA and 30% energy as saturated fat) and cod liver oil (5% energy as EPA and DHA and 5% energy as ALA in addition to 31% energy as saturated fat). In addition, ex vivo PBMC experiments were performed in eight healthy subjects investigating the effects of EPA and ALA on release and gene expression of inflammatory markers. The IL-8 mRNA level was significantly increased after intake of the cod liver oil cake at 6h compared with fasting level, which was significantly different from the effect observed after the intake of linseed cake. In contrast, no effect was seen on circulating level of IL-8. In addition, ALA and EPA were shown to elicit different effects on the release and mRNA expression levels of inflammatory markers in PBMC cultured ex vivo, with EPA having the most prominent pro-inflammatory potential.

Short Chain Saturated Fatty Acids Decrease Circulating Cholesterol and Increase Tissue PUFA Content in the Rat

This study investigates the effect of various dietary saturated fatty acid (SFA) profiles on plasma lipid parameters and tissue fatty acid composition in rats. The experiment was designed to monitor polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) levels, while examining different amounts and types of SFA. Four isocaloric diets were prepared, containing 10-11mol% of fatty acids (FA) as linoleic acid (LNA) and 2.5mol% as α-linolenic acid (ALA), leading to an identical and well-balanced LNA/ALA ratio. The initial rapeseed oil/corn oil mixture providing ALA and LNA was enriched with olive oil to prepare the olive oil diet. The butterfat diet was supplemented with butterfat, containing short-chain SFA (C4:0-C10:0, 17mol% of FA), lauric acid (C12:0, 3.2mol%), myristic acid (C14:0, 10.5mol%) and palmitic acid (C16:0, 14.5mol%). The saturates diet was supplemented with trilaurin, trimyristin and tripalmitin to obtain the same level of lauric, myristic and palmitic acids as the butterfat diet, without the short-chain SFA. The trimyristin diet was enriched with trimyristin only. The results showed that the butterfat diet contributed to specific effects, compared to the olive oil diet and the saturates and trimyristin diets: a decrease in plasma total, LDL- and HDL-cholesterol, higher tissue storage of ALA and LNA, and a higher level of (n-3) highly unsaturated fatty acids in some tissues. This study supports the hypothesis that in diets with identical well-balanced LNA/ALA ratios, short chain SFA may decrease circulating cholesterol and increase tissue polyunsaturated fatty acid content in the rat.

Chemopreventive Effects of Flax Seed Oil and Flax Seed Meal on Azoxymethane-Induced Colon Tumors in Fisher 344 Male Rats

This study was designed to evaluate the anticarcinogenic effect of Flax Seed Meal (FSM) (10 and 20%) and Flax Seed Oil (FSO) (7 and 14%) on Azoxymethane (AOM)-induced colon tumors in Fisher 344 male rats during initiation (I), promotion (P) and Initiation + Promotion (I+P) stages of carcinogenesis. After an acclimatization period of 1 week, 14 groups of Fisher 344 male weanling rats, 3-4 week old (15 per group) were assigned to 2 control groups fed AIN 93G diet and AIN 93G + 14% soybean oil (SBO) (high fat control). The remaining 12 groups were assigned to 10 and 20% FSM (I, P and I+P) and 7 and 14% FSO (I, P and I+P). All rats received 16 mg kg-1 body weight of AOM at 7 and 8 week of age. At 20 weeks of age all animals were switched to AIN-93 M diets and at 45 week of age all rats were killed by CO2 asphyxiation. Tumor incidence (%) in colon of rats fed C (7 and 14%) was both 100. Tumor incidences for rats fed FSO (7 and 14%) at I, P and I+P were: 100, 100, 61, 60, 58 and 61, respectively and 80, 80, 66.6, 66.6, 66.6 and 31, respectively for rats fed FSM (10 and 20%) at I, P and I+P. Tumors per tumor-bearing ratios for groups fed C; 10 and 20% FSM (I, P and I + P) were 3.86, 1.28, 1.70, 1.75 and 1.0, 0.94, 0.64, respectively. In rats fed C (7 and 14%) and 7 and 14% FSO (I, P and I + P) T/TBR ratios were 3.86, 5.96; 1.4, 0.6, 0.6; 1.90, 0.8, 0.8, respectively. Glutathione-S-Transferase activity (a phase II detoxification enzyme) was significantly (p<0.05) higher in rats fed 10 and 20% FSM and 7 and 14% FSO compared to controls. The results of this study indicate that bioactive phytochemicals such as dietary fiber and lignans such as secoisolariciresinol diglycoside (SDG) found in flax seed meal and essential fatty acids such as α-linolenic acid (ALA) found in flax seed oil suppress colon tumors, particularly at the promotion stage and flax seed products may therefore be effective chemopreventive agents.