Artificial Reef Program Research Articles

Repurposing oil and gas infrastructure as artificial reefs – a global perspective

More than 7000 offshore oil and gas (O&G) installations are found across 53 countries throughout the world’s oceans. During their life span, these structures provide a habitat for marine life and can support diverse assemblages. At the end of planned service life, they are decommissioned which usually involves the complete removal of infrastructure from the ocean, resulting in the loss of these marine communities. Various countries have repurposed O&G platforms as artificial reefs as an alternative solution to decommissioning, such as the Rigs-to-Reefs (R2R) program developed by the United States (US). The repurposing of O&G platforms may have benefits in preserving or enhancing ecological communities, as well as reducing the impacts and costs associated with removal and disposal onshore. The placement of O&G platforms in the ocean as artificial reefs demands prudent planning and high-level management to ensure the anticipated benefits are delivered and potential impacts are managed. The US National Artificial Reef Program (NARP) along with the R2R program provides guidelines on various aspects of artificial reef use, including planning, site selection, design and management. Since 1980, the US has successfully converted more than 593 O&G platforms to permanent artificial reefs due to the active participation and support of O&G operators, government, local fishing and diving communities. Other countries are also taking initiatives to repurpose their O&G infrastructure. The aim of this paper is to identify key considerations in the repurposing of O&G infrastructure as artificial reefs, using the US R2R program and other geographies as examples.

Fish community assessment of shelf-edge artificial reefs along east-central Florida

Artificial reef development is a popular management tool used to enhance fish stocks, mitigate degradation or loss of natural habitats, and provide additional recreational opportunities. In Florida, artificial reef development is a top priority of the Florida Fish and Wildlife Division of Marine Fisheries Management’s Artificial Reef program; however, despite their popularity and support, our scientific understanding of how artificial reefs ecologically facilitate marine fisheries is limited in certain habitats. This is especially true of the many artificial reefs along Florida’s central east coast, which has received sporadic assessment over the past few decades. The objective of this study was to conduct a fishery-independent assessment of the reef fish communities inhabiting the artificial reef sites off central east coast Florida using a combination of vertical longline sampling (VLL) and baited remote underwater videos (BRUV). Red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) and vermilion snapper (Rhomboplites aurorubens) had the largest catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) during VLL sampling, with red snapper CPUE significantly greater on rubble artificial reefs deeper than 40 m and vermilion snapper CPUE significantly greater on artificial reefs shallower than 30 m. A total of 62 fish species were observed on BRUVs, and community analysis indicated that red snapper, vermilion snapper, and tomtate (Haemulon aurolineatum) contributed the most to differences in community composition. Red snapper had the greatest abundance on sites deeper than 40 m, while vermilion snapper and tomtates had greater abundance on sites shallower than 30 m; all three species were more abundant during summer. This study provides the first quantitative assessment of reef fish communities on artificial reefs along central east coast Florida. Further monitoring is encouraged to unravel possible interactive effects of reef type and other environmental factors on fish assemblages, although it is evident that the reefs sampled support multiple managed fisheries species.

Small-scale fishery income impact from artificial reefs in Lang Suan District, Chumphon Province, Thailand

To evaluate the economic impact of artificial reefs on small-scale fishing community, we investigated fishers’ income and perception after 3 years of artificial reef deployment in Lang Suan District, Chumphon Province, Thailand. Ninety-two small-scale fishing households were randomly selected for survey. Half of households relied on squid fishing as a major source of income. Squid fishing contributed three-quarter of the total fishery income in this artisanal fishing community. Percentage of households having decrease in fishery income after artificial reef deployment households was 24%. While percentages of households experiencing no change and increase in fishery income were equal at 38%. Ordered logistic regression model identified that fisher characteristics such as family size, sub-district, squid fishery as the major income, fishing time, and fishers’ rest were significant factors affecting changes in fishery income. Differences in fishery income after AR program were estimated by propensity score matching method and showed that annual community fishery income has increased by 6%. Also, most of the respondents showed satisfaction toward artificial reef program in enhancement of marine resources and environment.

Artificial Reef Types Affect Red Snapper Sizes, and Catch‐and‐Release Practices Inhibit Refuge‐Seeking Behavior in Fish

Alabama has the most extensive artificial reef program in the United States, with 15,000-plus artificial reefs. This may come as a surprise to some, considering the state's coastline is only 60 mil...

Fish settlement on reefballs artificial reef and natural coral reef at Buyat Bay and surrounding areas, North Sulawesi, Indonesia

Reefballs are internationally patented (1995) and/or copyrighted technologies that allow nearly all natural reef features to be mimicked (Barber, 2000). It is used in over 56 countries for a range of applications including fishing reefs (recreational and commercial), diving reefs, mitigation of dredging and blast fishing, enhancement of coastal develop-ments and multipurpose breakwaters. The rehabilitation of coral reef ecosystem have been broadly acted in Indonesia and even worldwide. Various models and structures of artificial reefs have been made in many countries from different materials. Many of those artificial reefs do not get good attention on their condition after locating them on the sea basin. In 1999, the gold mine operator PT Newmont Minahasa Raya initiated an artificial reef program to provide an incentive to protect local marine resources from bomb fishing, cyaniding and other unsustainable practices. Monitoring program was conducted annually from 2001 to 2009 in 3 locations both in reefball area and adjacent natural reef in 3m and 10m depth at Buyat Bay and surroundings, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Monitoring was conducted specific for Target and Indicator species with ‘visual census’ method. The survey in 2009 identified 13 families, 29 genera, 81 species and 2,025 individuals inhabiting the reefballs at 3m depth whereas at 10m depth, 14 families, 36 genera, 106 species and 3883 individuals were found. After 9 years monitoring, it was found that one location of Reefball have better fish settlement compared to the adjacent natural reef. One location was in progress to recovery and the location still under the natural reef.

Influences of Artificial Reefs on Juvenile Red Snapper along the Mississippi Gulf Coast

AbstractRed Snapper Lutjanus campechanus represent one of the more economically important fisheries in the northern Gulf of Mexico; as such, Red Snapper abundance has decreased dramatically in the past two decades. The use of artificial reefs could aid in the rehabilitation of Red Snapper stocks by providing refuge for juveniles and a place of foraging and recruitment. A study was initiated to determine the effectiveness of different artificial reef distribution patterns in attracting and sustaining juvenile Red Snapper in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Fish traps (0.97 m long; 0.64 m high; funnel mouth size = 175×115 mm) were used to collect Red Snapper (<406 mm TL) that were associated with pyramid‐shaped artificial reef structures (3.7‐m triangular base; 2.4‐m height; 3.2 metric tons) to evaluate two reef distribution designs: (1) five closely spaced pyramid units (“clumped” pattern) and (2) five closely spaced pyramids plus two sets of two pyramids at 30.5, 61.0, or 91.5 m from the five pyramids (“outlier” pattern). In 26 sampling trips, 927 Red Snapper were captured. Catch per unit effort (number of fish/trap soak‐hour) did not differ significantly among artificial reef patterns (P = 0.396). Red Snapper TLs differed significantly among patterns (P = 0.005), with the largest mean TL (235 mm; SE = 5.14) occurring at the outlier pattern with 61.0‐m spacing. Results from this study indicate that reef spacing and horizontal extension are important factors to consider when designing an artificial reef program, especially those that target juvenile Red Snapper.Received February 2, 2012; accepted September 26, 2012

Pattern of Recovery of the Goliath Grouper <I>Epinephelus itajara</I> Population in the Southeastern US

In the present study, we evaluate the past and current distribution and abundance of the atlantic goliath grouper, Epinephelus itajara (Lichtenstein, 1822), in coastal waters of the southeastern United States. The study is based on quantitative surveys conducted by us (n = 190) and the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission's Artificial Reef Program (n = 505), coupled with semi-quantitative data submitted by volunteer divers to the Reef Environmental Education Foundation (n = 27,542) over the past 15+ yrs. The vast majority of the goliath grouper population is restricted to Florida waters. We found that the population of goliath grouper, after dramatic fishery-induced declines in the 1970s and 1980s, and eventual fishery closure in the 1990s, increased off southwest Florida in the mid-1990s, directly offshore of the high-quality mangrove nursery of the Ten Thousand Islands. It then expanded north and south, eventually increasing off Florida's central east coast. Tagged fish, regardless of life stage, showed strong site fidelity to home sites: juveniles (2963 tagged, 32.6% recaptured) to mangrove nursery sites and adults (2110 tagged, 7.6% recaptured) to offshore reefs. All long-distance movements appeared to be in response to approaching maturity, with juveniles emigrating from mangroves to take up residence on offshore reefs, to seasonal spawning activity, with adults moving from home sites to aggregation sites, or to apparent feeding sites in inlets. Understanding these patterns of population recovery and movement is fundamental to devising appropriate management policies.

Stakeholder analysis in the portuguese artificial reef context: winners and losers

In this stakeholder analysis related to the artificial reef (AR) program located in the Algarve (Southern Portugal mainland) 21 different stakeholder clusters were identified. Stakeholders were classified as primary, secondary and external. It was found that stakeholder interaction with the structures can be of private, public or cooperative interest. In the analysis there were also identified and mapped the impact of the program on stakeholders and their power to influence the ARs' outcomes. Stakeholders' interactions with the ARs were studied, along with their likely attitudes and behavior towards the man-made structures. Finally, all stakeholder clusters were classified according to their expected degree of involvement throughout the different AR stages. The purpose of this stakeholder analysis was to find out winners and losers connected with the reef deployment. It was found that most stakeholder clusters were affected positively, but also four clusters affected negatively. However, it is believed that those that may be affected negatively do not pose a serious threat to the expected AR development along its lifetime.

Industry News

This article announces that Hanson Pipe & Precast and Hanson Pressure Pipe have donated more than 200 tons of reinforced concrete pipe, precast structures, and pressure pipe to the city of Jacksonville, Florida, Artificial Reef Program to be used in the Floyd's Folly area offshore of Ponte Vedra. Designed to aid sea life, the reef lies in approximately 74 ft of water and stands almost 12 ft high. A 20‐ft‐long pressure pipe weighing almost 36,000 lbs served as the barge's anchor when the reef was set in place. All of the structures helped to create a new habitat for marine life, more accessible fishing grounds for anglers, and nature observation areas for divers.

The impact of the 2005 hurricane season on the Louisiana Artificial Reef Program

Abstract The 2005 hurricane season in the Gulf of Mexico was the worst in the history of offshore production, with Hurricanes Katrina and Rita destroying 110 oil and gas structures and eight mobile offshore drilling units. Infrastructure destroyed by accident or natural catastrophe are decommissioned according to the same federal regulations that guide normal decommissioning operations, but depending on the nature of the destruction and the market conditions in the months following the event, special conditions and delays may occur. Historically, offshore infrastructure destroyed by hurricanes or other unusual circumstances have been considered for inclusion in the Louisiana Artificial Reef Program (LARP) under the Special Artificial Reef Site (SARS) category. The purpose of this paper is to review the impact of the 2005 hurricane season on the LARP and the current status of the SARS program. We examine the criteria employed in project evaluation and approval as well as aggregate program statistics. The characteristics and risks associated with decommissioning destroyed infrastructure are also described. At the end of 2006, 10 projects representing 35 platforms destroyed in the 2005 hurricane season have been approved as SARS in the Gulf of Mexico, effectively doubling the number of sites and structures classified as SARS.

The Louisiana artificial reef program

Abstract The Louisiana artificial reef program (LARP) is the largest rigs-to-reef program in the world, and is unique in its almost exclusive use of oil and gas structures for reef construction. In 1986, Louisiana became the first state to create an artificial reef program under the guidance of National Fishing Enhancement Act and authorization of the Louisiana Fishing Enhancement Act. Currently, LARP has created over 83 artificial reef sites using over 120 decommissioned platforms. Operators that donate a platform as an artificial reef can often lower the cost of decommissioning below the cost to bring the platform to shore for disposal. Many factors are involved in the decision to convert a rig into a reef, and subsequently, the cost savings associated with reefing. The purpose of this paper is to describe the regulatory background of LARP, to discuss the nature of the cost savings associated with reef donation, and to derive quantitative relations that predict the donation amount based on characteristics of the structure. The frequency of rig donations as a function of water depth and planning area are provided, and regression models of the donation are developed based on the structure size, water depth, removal method, and proximity of the platform to the permitted reef site. Priorities for future research are also identified.

The Texas Artificial Reef Program

The National Fishing Enhancement Act (NFEA) of 1984 was designed to promote and facilitate efforts to establish artificial reefs for the purpose of enhancing fishery resources and commercial and recreational opportunities. In 1991, the Texas Artificial Reef Program was established based on the guidelines of the NFEA to provide a means for the oil and gas industry to donate their obsolete structures as artificial reefs. Currently, over 35 permitted reef sites from over 70 decommissioned platforms have been created offshore Texas. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the regulatory background of the Texas Artificial Reef Program, to discuss the nature of the cost savings associated with reef donation, and to derive first-order approximate relations that predict the donation amount. Statistical data describing the frequency of rig donations as a function of water depth and planning area are provided, and regression models of the donation are developed based on the structure size, water depth, removal method, and proximity of the platform to the permitted reef site.

Rigs-to-Reef Programs in the Gulf of Mexico

The Louisiana and Texas Artificial Reef Programs are the largest rigs-to-reef programs in the world. The program involves donating obsolete oil and gas structures for use as artificial reefs in lieu of on-shore removal. The National Fishing Enhancement Act of 1984 established the U.S. National Artificial Reef Plan and provided guidelines for state development of artificial reef programs. In 1986, the Louisiana Artificial Reef Program was established and has accepted over 120 decommissioned platforms to create 83 artificial reef sites in the Gulf of Mexico. The Texas Artificial Reef Program, established in 1991, has created over 35 reef sites from 73 platforms. The purpose of this article is to describe the Louisiana and Texas Artificial Reef Programs, to compare their regulatory structures, and to discuss the nature of the cost savings associated with reef donation and the frequency of donation.

Enduring Optimism: Examining the Rig-to-Reef Bargain

Federal law requires the removal of offshore oil and gas platforms from the seafloor at the end of production. An exception to this rule allows a platform to stay on the seafloor if it is incorporated into a state artificial reef program. These projects have been promoted as innovative public-private partnerships that address the dual problems of costly platform removal and disappearing fishing opportunities. I argue that the current legal framework fails to ensure habitat enhancement and may condone ocean dumping. The problem can be traced to three sources: federal and state competition on the outer continental shelf, lack of a comprehensive long-term federal vision for outer continental shelf development, and interest group pressure in the face of scientific uncertainty. I recommend that we revisit the bargain struck in rig-to-reef conversions. This article identifies the flaws in current law and proposes a more robust experimental model to ensure that public benefits realized in rig-to-reef programs.

Abstract: Use of Oil and Gas Platforms as Habitat in Louisiana Artificial Reef Program 

Abstract: Use of Oil and Gas Platforms as Habitat in Louisiana Artificial Reef Program 

Use of Oil and Gas Platforms as Habitat in Louisiana's Artificial Reef Program

ABSTRACT Louisiana's offshore oil and gas industry began in 1947 when the first well was drilled out of sight of land south of Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana. Today, over 3,900 offshore oil and gas platforms have been installed, supplying 25% of the United States' production of natural gas and approximately 13% of its oil. In addition to meeting the world's energy needs, these structures also form one of the world's most extensive defacto artificial reef systems. However, Federal regulations require that these structures be removed within 1 year after the mineral lease is terminated. Disposal of obsolete offshore oil and gas structures is not only a financial liability for private industry but can be a loss of productive marine habitat. To date (December, 1998) approximately 1700 rigs have been removed since 1973 from the Gulf of Mexico. In 1986 the Louisiana Fishing Enhancement Act was signed into law, in response to the National Fishing Enhancement Act, creating the Louisiana Artificial Reef Program. This program was designed to take advantage of fishing habitat opportunities offered by these obsolete platforms. Since the program's inception, 25 reef sites, utilizing the components (jackets and decks) of 75 obsolete platforms, have been created off Louisiana's coast. The use of obsolete oil and gas platforms in Louisiana has proved to be highly successful. Their large numbers, design, longevity, and stability have provided a number of advantages over the use of traditional artificial reef materials. The participating companies also save money by converting the structure into a reef rather than abandoning it onshore. They then are required to donate a portion of the savings to the state to run the artificial reef program. One disadvantage, however, is that the large size of these platforms restricts the distance from shore where they can be sited. To achieve the minimum clearance of 16 m over a submerged structure, as required by the New Orleans (8th) Coast Guard District regulations, the platforms must be placed in waters deeper than 30 m. Waters of this depth are found between 22 km and 115 km from shore on Louisiana's gently sloping continental shelf, making them almost inaccessible to many anglers. Funds generated by the program, however, can be used to develop reefs closer to shore if alternative low profile materials are used. Due to high maintenance costs of both the structure and aids to navigation, the increased liability exposure and the undetermined cost of removing the structure once it becomes a hazard to public safety and navigation, leaving the structures standing in place has thus far proved not to be a viable option in Louisiana.

Alabama's Artificial Reef Program: Building Oases in the Desert

Alabama's Artificial Reef Program: Building Oases in the Desert

Evolution of Marine Artificial Reef Development—A Philosophical Review of Management Strategies

Artificial reefs are a common fishery and aquatic habitat management tool, used in all U.S. coastal states and elsewhere worldwide. Although support for their use is strong among managers and resource users, there is still inadequate scientific information available on their performance in meeting program goals; performance and ecological function information is also weak on many types of natural reefs and fishery-valuable shipwrecks. The wise and responsible use of artificial reefs or habitats by habitat or fishery managers depends on knowing how well they are meeting application objectives; these objectives can be singular or multiple and can involve compliance with laws and regulations. Noncompliance monitoring provides good feedback information to managers and artificial reef designers and planners for continued support and improvement of their efforts. Artificial reef development in the U.S.A. has perhaps reached a state in which an equal effort is needed for construction and for monitoring, assessment, and program fine-tuning for optimum beneficial results. Support for this shift in emphasis can be found in the fact that the continued expansion of artificial reef development has not stopped the decline of many reef fishery resources, such as black sea bass, groupers, snappers, and tautog, or caused many user conflicts. If the artificial reefs and habitats are not completely meeting program expectations, then managers will want to know this and what might be the causes of the shortfall. This paper discusses how monitoring is an essential part of any artificial reef program, just as it is a part of most other fishery and natural resource management efforts, and that there are a range of artificial reef habitat or reef fishery variables that can or should be monitored that provide critical performance information for aquatic resource managers.

USE OF OIL AND GAS PLATFORMS AS HABITAT IN LOUISIANA'S ARTIFICIAL REEF PROGRAM

Louisiana's offshore oil and gas industry began in 1947 when the first well was drilled out of sight of land south of Terrebonne Parish. Today over 3,700 offshore oil and gas platforms have been installed, supplying 25 per cent of the United States' production of natural gas and 12.5 per cent of its oil. In addition to meeting the world's energy needs, these structures also form one of the world's most extensive defacto artificial reef systems. However, federal regulations require that these structures be removed within 1 year after the lease is terminated. Disposal of obsolete offshore oil and gas structures is not only a net financial liability for private industry but can be a public loss of productive marine habitat. In 1986 the Louisiana Fishing Enhancement Act was signed into law, in response to the National Fishing Enhancement Act, creating the Louisiana Artificial Reef Program. This program was designed to take advantage of fishing habitat opportunities offered by these obsolete platforms. Since the program's inception 22 reef sites, utilising the components (jackets and decks) of 58 obsolete platforms, have been created off Louisiana's coast. The use of obsolete oil and gas platforms in Louisiana has proved to be highly successful. Their large numbers, design, longevity, and stability have provided a number of advantages over the use of traditional artificial reef materials. The participating companies also save money by converting the structure into a reef rather than abandoning it onshore; these companies are required to donate a portion of the savings to the state to run the artificial reef program. One disadvantage, however, is that the large size of these platforms restricts the distance to shore where they can be sited. To achieve the minimum clearance of 16 m over a submerged structure, as required by the Coast Guard regulations, the platforms must be placed in waters deeper than 30 m. Waters of this depth are found between 22 km and 115 km from shore on Louisiana's gently sloping continental shelf, making them almost inaccessible to many anglers. Funds generated by the program, however, can be used to develop reefs closer to shore if alternative low profile materials are used. Due to high maintenance costs of both the structure and aids to navigation, the increased liability exposure and the undetermined cost of removing the structure once it becomes a hazard to public safety and navigation, leaving the structures standing in place has thus far proved not to be a viable option in Louisiana.

Comparisons of Three Manufactured Artificial Reef Units in Onslow Bay, North Carolina

Abstract Three types of benthic artificial reef units were tested by the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries Artificial Reef Program: steel cubes, fiberglass-covered plastic domes, and concrete pipes. Evaluations were conducted in 1990 and 1991 at two sites in Onslow Bay, North Carolina. Reef materials were compared at the deep site (≥15 m) by quantifying stability, durability, target fish attraction, and cost per unit surface area. Assessment at the shallow site (<15 m) included only stability, durability, and cost per unit surface area. Cubes and domes were stable in shallow (<15 m) waters. Pipes and domes were stable and cubes were unstable in deep waters (≥15 m). Pipes were evaluated only at the deep site, The only structural damage observed was to two domes which were crushed during deployment. Acceptable postdeployment durability was observed for all three materials through 2 years of monitoring. Relative abundance and species richness for target fishes were assessed at the deep site and wer...