Area Of Costa Rica Research Articles

Factors influencing fumonisin B1 contamination in maize: insights from two production regions in Costa Rica.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important cereal crop worldwide. Contaminated maize kernels pose a significant mycotoxin exposure risk for humans in Latin America. Fumonisins, the most prevalent mycotoxin in maize, typically occur during pre-harvest conditions leading to significant economic losses. Various factors, including weather conditions, may influence this contamination. This study aimed to determine the association between fumonisin B1 (FB1) contamination, prevalence of Fusarium verticillioides, weather conditions and kernel quality in the two primary maize production areas in Costa Rica (Brunca and Chorotega). All maize samples (100%) showed FB1 contamination, with higher concentrations in samples from Brunca region, consistent with the presence of F. verticilliodes. Weather conditions appeared to play an important role in this contamination, since Brunca region had the highest mean temperature and relative humidity after maize silking (R1) and the total monthly rainfall in this region was significantly higher during the last two months of maize cultivation (grain-filling and physiological maturity stages R3 to R6). Interestingly, this study found a negative correlation between grain damage and kernel contamination with FB1 and F. verticillioides. The concentration of mineral nutrients in kernels from both regions was largely similar. Most nutrients in kernels exhibited a negative correlation with FB1, particularly nitrogen. Zinc and phosphorus were the only nutrients in kernels showing a positive correlation with FB1 in samples from the Brunca region. The results highlight elevated levels of FB1 contamination in maize and contribute to a better understanding of pre-harvest factors influencing FB1 contamination in tropical conditions.

Enhancing community health: Veterinary services for underserved areas in Costa Rica with a One Health Approach

In underserved areas of Costa Rica, community veterinary services aim to provide comprehensive care for companion animals, covering preventive, therapeutic, and surgical medicine. Emphasizing a One Health approach, our model focuses on animal welfare, health, and public well-being in vulnerable regions. The project's goal is to ensure the overall well-being of animals, people, and the environment by collaboratively addressing animal health issues and recognizing their interconnected impact on optimal health. Limited resources in underprivileged areas, including restricted access to veterinary care for pets, pose challenges to overall health. Despite its global health benefits, the absence of companion animal veterinary care in these regions has been largely overlooked. Our One Health approach not only addresses animal health but also has a significant impact on human and environmental health, economies, and social factors. This innovative strategy is a pioneering effort to tackle complex health issues in Costa Rica.

O fenômeno ENOS e a análise da variabilidade das séries temporais de precipitação na Área de Conservação Guanacaste, Costa Rica

The Pacific Northwest of Costa Rica is a region with marked seasonality in rainfall patterns. This area of Costa Rica is prone to extreme hydroclimatic phenomena such as droughts and floods. Due to the limited distribution of rainfall gauges and the unavailability of relevant information, complementary data obtained from satellites and their respective reanalyzes become imperative for acquiring crucial information. This information can support water resource management actions and their impacts on both natural and productive ecosystems.
 To analyze the precipitation patterns, we utilized the CHIRPS product’s precipitation time series for five ecoregions within the Guanacaste Conservation Area, located in the northwestern Pacific region of Costa Rica. These curves were strongly and negatively correlated with time series from sea surface temperature monitoring regions, including Niño 1.2, Niño 3, Niño 3.4, and Niño 4.
 All analyzed ecoregions exhibited strong negative correlations with the Niño 1.2 region, with correlation coefficients (R values) ranging between -0.72 to -0.74. Additionally, a lag of four to five months was observed in the Niño 4 curve compared to the Niño 1.2 region. This study suggests that the Niño 4 anomaly, with a lag of approximately 4 to 5 months, can serve as an indicator of possible impacts on precipitation patterns in different ecoregions. This provides sufficient time to plan actions, particularly within the agricultural sector. This study demonstrates the potential predictability of the effects of ENSO phenomenon on precipitation patterns for large areas with a certain eco-systemic homogeneity, such as the ecoregions in the Guanacaste Conservation Area.

Analysis of the spatial extension of pineapple monocultures in northern Costa Rica using heterogeneous geographic data

Abstract. In recent years, Costa Rica has become the world's leading producer and exporter of pineapple, with more than 65.000 hectares of its territory dedicated to this crop. The development of these intensive pineapple crops is mainly concentrated in the north of the country, especially in the border area with Nicaragua. This rapid expansion in these regions has many economic, social and environmental consequences. In order to understand the local impact of this phenomenon, a first analysis of land use changes for the benefit of pineapple monocultures must be performed. For this purpose, pineapple crop delineation layers in 2000 and 2019 were provided by MOCUPP, a United Nations agency responsible for monitoring agricultural areas in Costa Rica. Landsat 5 satellite images from 1998 and 2001 were also used to generate land cover classifications. The pineapple crop delineation layers produced by MOCUPP are characterized by heterogeneous granularities and positional accuracies, complicating the analysis of land cover changes through the generation of artefacts. To address this problem, an artefact removal procedure was conducted, based on the use of minimum shape and size indicators. The assignment of land use changes to pineapple crops allowed the assessment of deforested areas between 2000 and 2019. Thus, over this period, more than 6300 hectares of forest were lost to pineapple crops, mainly in the cantons of Los Chiles and San Carlos, in the northern part of the country. Finally, this article illustrates the problems associated with the use of heterogeneous data to analyse land cover changes. To avoid these problems, the use of prior data integration procedures, such as data matching algorithms, is recommended.

IDENTIFICATION OF ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT ON NATURAL HABITATS BY ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE QUANTIFICATION IN TWO NEOTROPICAL WILD CATS AND THEIR GEOSPATIAL ANALYSIS.

Human activities such as habitat degradation and fragmentation threaten biodiversity in Neotropical areas. This work proposes an analytical methodology to identify natural areas in Central America with anthropogenic impact, analyzing the presence of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) in accordance with their theoretical relationship with human-related activities. Sixteen ARGs were quantified in feces of different individuals of 13 jaguars (Panthera onca) and 13 pumas (Puma concolor) in three conservation areas in Costa Rica by real-time PCR. At least one ARG was detected in all samples. Of the ARGs encoding tetracycline resistance, the most frequent were tetQ and tetY (85% and 69%, respectively). The sulfonamides (sulI and sulII; 69% each), phenicols (catI and catII; 19% and 54%, respectively), and quinolones (qnrS; 12%) were also detected. The presence of human settlements, livestock farms (pigs, cattle, and poultry), roads, human health centers, flood zones, and rivers were identified within each area to generate an index of human activity. We found no difference between the presence of ARG by roads, agricultural activities, and human settlements (P>0.05). However, tetW showed higher percentages with porcine and bovine farms; both tetY and tetW were more frequent in jaguars than in pumas. Of concern is that many of the most contaminated samples were taken from national parks, such as Braulio Carrillo and Tortuguero, where animals should not have direct contact with humans.

Molecular typing of bovine papillomaviruses in Costa Rica.

Bovine papillomaviruses are related to cause fibroepithelial proliferations in the skin and mucosae and are associated with economic loss mainly related to poor body condition and reduced milk production. This study aimed to investigate the presence and types of bovine papillomaviruses (BPVs) in cattle sampled in different areas of Costa Rica using molecular techniques. A descriptive study with a non-probability convenience sampling was carried out. A total of 99 papillomatous lesions were collected from 63 animals in 32 farms, and analyzed by polymerase chain reaction, rolling circle amplification (RCA), sequencing, and restriction enzymes digestion. Seven bovine papillomavirus types (BPV1, BPV2, BPV4, BPV6, BPV7, BPV10, BPV11) and two putative novel viral variants (BPV-CR1 and BPV-CR2) were identified for the first time in Costa Rica. BPV6 was the most frequently detected virus in lesions (31.2%), followed by BPV2 (25%) and BPV1 (25%). BPV1 and BPV2 were the most widely distributed in the Country. Coinfections were recorded in two animals (BPV1 / BPV2 and BPV4 / BPV6). Restriction analyses allowed differentiating BPV1 from BPV2, BPV4, and BPV7, but failed to identify BPV6, BPV10, and BPV11. Results suggest that a great PVs diversity is harbored by bovines in Costa Rica and indicate the need for further investigations aimed to uncover PV diversity at the full genomic level.

Medicinal plants cultivated in urban home gardens in Heredia, Costa Rica

BackgroundUrban ethnobotanical research in Costa Rica is rather rare and home gardens are poorly studied so far. Investigating their biodiversity is crucial in gathering knowledge on the uses of this particular flora, especially related to the owners’ health. This study therefore explores the diversity and knowledge of medicinal plants of private garden owners from three different urban neighborhoods in Heredia, Costa Rica, an thus far understudied area.MethodsSemi-structured interviews (n = 61) were conducted with garden owners in three socioeconomically different urban neighborhoods (Central Heredia, Maria Auxiliadora and Bernardo Benavides). Information was collected about medicinal plants cultivated in the garden, treatments, plant part used and mode of administration. All species were identified and their geographical origin was determined. This information was then compared with the available regional and local (ethno)pharmacopoeias to detect possible newly documented uses.ResultsThe majority or 90% of garden owners who also held knowledge on medicinal plants species were women (n = 30) of all ages (between 26 and 85 years old). A list of 27 species of medicinal plants was obtained from the participants of three urban neighborhoods. In Central Heredia, 74% (n = 20) of the total species were present, in Maria Auxiliadora 33% (n = 9) and in Bernardo Benavides 56% (n = 15). Most plant species were used by the participants to treat respiratory problems (11 spp.), hair and skin problems (9 spp.) and digestive disorders (8 spp.). Some plants were used to treat multiple ailments (10 spp.). About a third of all species (n = 8) were used by the participants to treat disorders that were not indicated in the regional and local pharmacopoeias. More specifically, Aloe saponaria, Blechum pyramidatum, Costus scaber, Impatiens walleriana, Lippia alba, Tradescantia zebrina, Psidium friedrichsthalianum and Solenostemon scutellarioides used for medicinal purposes by the participants were not found in the above-mentioned resources.ConclusionsThe present study provides new information about the use of medicinal plants in a thus far understudied urban area in Costa Rica. We documented new medicinal uses for several plants listed in the regional and local pharmacopoeias as well as for plants not previously reported in an urban environment. In general, there is little information about the types of plants used for medicinal purposes in urban ecosystems in Costa Rica. Although the country has a high endemic diversity of plants, many exotic medicinal plant species were introduced by the Spaniards during the colonization and by Afro-Costa Rican descendants. The present results thus show how the diversity of the medicinal plants used by these garden owners' confirms a socioeconomic gradient and reflects both Costa Rica’s colonial history as well as the current epidemiological profile of the country. These findings underline the need for more ethnobotanical research in urban areas in Costa Rica.

Seroprevalence and prevalence of Babesia vogeli in clinically healthy dogs and their ticks in Costa Rica

Canine babesiosis is a disease caused by a parasite of the genus Babesia which destroys red blood cells. Previous studies have shown the presence of Babesia vogeli in rural areas in Costa Rica using molecular techniques. The objective of the present study was to determine the seroprevalence and prevalence of B. vogeli in clinically healthy dogs and their ticks at the national level, both within and outside the Central Valley. Blood samples and ticks from 482 dogs were collected between June 2011 and May 2014, and analyzed by immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR); two protocols of endpoint PCR and sequencing were used to confirm qPCR-positive samples. Seroprevalence of canine babesiosis of 5.3% (24/453) was determined at the national level, specifically 2.0% (5/253) within and 9.5% (19/200) outside the Central Valley, respectively. Real-time PCR determined a global prevalence of B. vogeli of 31.3% (125/400): 21.4% (47/220) within the Central Valley and 43.3% (78/180) outside the Central Valley. The endpoint PCR amplified only 10 of the 125 blood samples identified as positive in qPCR. One sample amplified by endpoint PCR was sequenced and identified as B. vogeli. Twelve canines were identified with past infections, seven canines with active infection, and 111 canines with early infection. Two species of ticks were found with B. vogeli: Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato (n = 40) and Amblyomma ovale (n = 1). The prevalence of canine babesiosis at the national level, both within and outside the Central Valley, is reported here for the first time, determining the presence of the piroplasmid throughout the country, with a higher circulation of the agent outside the Central Valley. Only one species, B. vogeli, was detected in the blood of dogs and their ticks. Therefore, veterinarians should consider using qPCR to determine the presence of the parasite in blood donors and before starting treatment of vector-borne disease in dogs.

Free-living hard ticks (Ixodida: Ixodidae) from three different natural environments of Costa Rica

This paper presents data on free-living ticks collected by flagging and using CO2 traps in three natural areas in Costa Rica: Carara National Park (CNP), Palo Verde National Park (PVNP), and a Private Forest Reserve in Sarapiquí (SPR). Data were analyzed calculating aspects of alpha diversity (species richness, entropy; dominance index, and evenness); and for beta diversity, compositional similarity between communities of ticks was also calculated. We collected 12,795 ticks belonging to 10 species: Amblyomma coelebs, Amblyomma dissimile, Amblyomma mixtum, Amblyomma naponense, Amblyomma cf. oblongoguttatum, Amblyomma cf. parvum, Amblyomma sabanerae, Amblyomma tapirellum, Haemaphysalis juxtakochi and Ixodes affinis. The number of species and individuals varied between sites: 5970 ticks were collected in CNP, 4443 in PVNP, and 2382 in SPR. Amblyomma cf. oblongoguttatum and A. cf. parvum were collected at all three sites, but A. mixtum was the most abundant species, even though it was not collected in SPR. Values of alpha diversity were calculated for CNP and SPR, while diversity in PVNP was the lowest of the three locations. Evenness was highest in SPR and lowest in CNP. The only community that presented dominance was PVNP. Beta diversity showed low similarity between the three locations with the lowest being CNP and SPR. For the three localities, estimates of the number of tick species based on presence/absence data was higher using flagging than CO2; and considering the stage of the ticks collected. More larvae were captured using CO2 traps than by flagging, while flagging was better for collecting adults. To our knowledge this is the first study in Costa Rica that compares these two sampling methods in three different environmental areas.

Range extension of the Blue-Sided Leaf Frog, Agalychnis annae (Anura: Hylidae): Using citizen science across suburban areas in Costa Rica.

Range extension of the Blue-Sided Leaf Frog, Agalychnis annae (Anura: Hylidae): Using citizen science across suburban areas in Costa Rica.

Probabilistic geotechnical designs in rural road infrastructure in Costa Rica

Rural road infrastructure normally lacks information to perform rigorous geotechnical designs, due especially, to budgeting restrictions. Three different transportation projects in rural areas in Costa Rica are presented, where a probabilistic approach was followed. The statistical parameters selected from previous research can be used as local literature values to perform probabilistic geotechnical designs and analyses when there is not enough data to execute a statistical analysis in a project. Moreover, these values could be used to better understand values obtained from geotechnical site exploration and possible regional tendencies. It is possible to conduct probabilistic geotechnical design even when a project does not include a throughout site exploration, like in low-budget projects. Probabilistic design for rural road projects can be a useful tool in the pursuit of optimal and efficient designs where soil behavior is better understood.

A taxonomic and molecular survey of the pteridophytes of the Nectandra Cloud Forest Reserve, Costa Rica.

Floristic surveys are crucial to the conservation of biodiversity, but the vast majority of such surveys are limited to listing species names, and few take into account the evolutionary history of species. Here, we combine classical taxonomic and molecular phylogenetic (DNA barcoding) approaches to catalog the biodiversity of pteridophytes (ferns and lycophytes) of the Nectandra Cloud Forest Reserve, Costa Rica. Surveys were carried out over three field seasons (2008, 2011, and 2013), resulting in 176 species representing 69 genera and 22 families of pteridophytes. Our literature survey of protected areas in Costa Rica shows that Nectandra has an exceptionally diverse pteridophyte flora for its size. Plastid rbcL was selected as a DNA barcode marker and obtained for >95% of pteridophyte taxa at this site. Combined molecular and morphological analyses revealed two previously undescribed taxa that appear to be of hybrid origin. The utility of rbcL for species identification was assessed by calculating minimum interspecific distances and found to have a failure rate of 18%. Finally we compared the distribution of minimum interspecific rbcL distances with two other areas that have been the focus of pteridophyte molecular surveys: Japan and Tahiti. The comparison shows that Nectandra is more similar to Japan than Tahiti, which may reflect the biogeographic history of these floras.

To Achieve Big Wins for Terrestrial Conservation, Prioritize Protection of Ecoregions Closest to Meeting Targets

Most of the terrestrial world is experiencing high rates of land conversion despite growth of the global protected area (PA) network. There is a need to assess whether the current global protection targets are achievable across all major ecosystem types and to identify those that need urgent protection. Using recent rates of habitat conversion and protection and the latest terrestrial ecoregion map, we show that if the same approach to PA establishment that has been undertaken over the past three decades continues, 558 of 748 ecoregions (ca. 75%) will not meet an aspirational 30% area protection target by 2030. A simple yet strategic acquisition plan that considers realistic futures around habitat loss and PA expansion could more than double the number of ecoregions adequately protected by 2030 given current funding constraints. These results highlight the importance of including explicit ecoregional representation targets within any new post-2020 global PA target.

Spatiotemporal dynamics of vector-borne disease risk across human land-use gradients: examining the role of agriculture, indigenous territories, and protected areas in Costa Rica

BackgroundCosta Rica has undergone significant changes to its forest ecosystems due, in part, to the proliferation of palm oil and other industrial agriculture operations. However, the country also boasts conservation programmes that are among the most robust in the neotropics. Consequently, gradients of anthropogenic to intact ecosystems are found throughout the country. Forest ecosystems may decrease vector-borne disease (VBD) risk by maintaining insect populations in a state of relative equilibrium; however, evidence suggests that intact forests foster biodiversity and may also amplify VBD risk in some circumstances. As a result, focal points of human-vector contact are likely idiosyncratic. This may be particularly true in indigenous territories, which have been shown to play a vital role in maintaining the ecological integrity of conservation areas. Here, we investigate the relationships between anthropogenic landscapes, indigenous territories, protected areas, and risk of VBD. MethodsWe quantified spatial dynamics of risk across three distinct categories of VBD in Costa Rica: emerging flaviviruses (Zika virus disease and dengue); neglected tropical diseases (cutaneous leishmaniasis and Chagas disease); and a disease nearing eradication (malaria). We collected district-level incidence data from between 2006 and 2017 and used spatial statistics to identify hotspots of elevated risk. We then quantified the associations between anthropogenic landscapes, intact forest ecosystems, and indigenous territories with both the presence and persistence of elevated transmission risk over time using multivariate hurdle models. FindingsWe detected clear patterns of non-random disease risk across each of the three categories of VBD. Compared with protected areas, districts with higher proportions of human-altered landscapes, particularly agricultural intensification, were at higher risk for VBD across all categories. Districts with the highest proportion of crop cover, compared with the lowest proportion, were significantly associated with the presence of hotspots for Zika virus disease (OR 15·19 [95% CI 6·19–37·26]), dengue (13·00 [7·24–23·35]), leishmaniasis (4·46 [1·18–16·84]), Chagas disease (3·09 [1·47–6·49]), and malaria (8·40 [3·56–19·83]). InterpretationA set of spatial epidemiology tools within a planetary health framework allowed for a refined understanding of the risk of VBD of global public health significance in a biodiversity hotspot. Our findings may be used to better guide targeted public health disease surveillance, control, and prevention programmes. Additional research to understand the role that socioeconomic factors play in the variating VBD risk would contribute additional context to these findings, as these factors are often also spatially associated. FundingNone.

Safety Design of a Hybrid Wind-Solar Energy System for Rural Remote Areas in Costa Rica

Although several kinds of energy generation systems have been investigated and introduced in Costa Rica, none were made on systems that use more than one energy source. The present work proposes a safety design of a hybrid wind-solar renewable energy system, designed to cover the energy demand in a governmental free housing at Martina Bustos, Liberia, Costa Rica. Twelve scaled models were designed. These are composed of a pole and one to four solar panels. Two commercial wind turbines, Airdolphin Mark-Zero/Pro and Zephyr 9000 were used to experimentally measure wind force on a wind tunnel at the Wind Engineering Research Center of the Tokyo Polytechnic University. Further, allowable stress design was calculated to determine the tower resistance to local buckling. Present results indicate that towers with 200 mm of the circumference and steel plates with 4.5 mm to 8 mm of thickness are considered safe from local buckling according to Japanese Industrial Standards. Energy generation calculation results show that four of the proposed models generate more than the average energy needed to supply electricity during a year at Martina Bustos to the specific house design.

Research Opportunities for Renewable Energy Electrification in Remote Areas of Costa Rica

Abstract Most countries around the world are politically driven to move toward a low-carbon future by embracing renewable energy technologies for electricity generation. With abundance of renewable energy resources, Costa Rica produces over 95 percent of its electricity from hydro, geothermal, and wind power plants. Only one percent of its population live without electricity, mainly in remote territories where rural off-grid electrification is very challenging. The purpose of this research is to contribute to enhancing the opportunities to reach universal electricity access in Costa Rica by studying some cases. A comparison with the African situation is made in order to find common points of benefit and learning. This article highlights that a greater level of engagement is needed from local leaders to develop efficient solutions in Costa Rica, and brings a relevant comparison with Africa’s energy needs as well.

LeptospiraSeroprevalence Detection and Rabies Virus Absence in an Urban Raccoon (Procyon lotor) Population in a Highly Populated Area, Costa Rica

Leptospirosis and rabies are zoonotic diseases of public health importance and endemic diseases in tropical countries such as Costa Rica. Peridomestic wild animals such as raccoons (Procyon lotor) have been implicated as competent hosts of Leptospira spirochetes and rabies virus. This study focused on understanding the role of urban raccoons in the dynamics of leptospirosis and rabies in a tropical environment. A total of 97 specimens of the common raccoon were captured within the Greater Metropolitan Area of Costa Rica; 32.6% (31/95) of raccoons presented evidence of antibodies (> 1: 100) against Leptospira sp. Attempts to cultivate Leptospira failed, but 19 serovars were identified, which are also responsible for causing disease in humans in Costa Rica. Detected titers ranged from 1: 100 to 1: 6400. Lymphoid hyperplasia in kidneys and spirochetes were demonstrated in 3 of 20 necropsied cases (15%). Twenty brain samples were analyzed by hematoxylin and eosin stain for evidence of encephalitis and Negri body detection and simultaneously frozen brain material was employed to perform a rapid immunoassay test for rabies antigen. All tested samples were negative. This study is the first report of Leptospira seroprevalence in raccoons that cohabit urban areas in Costa Rica. We also highlight the importance of the raccoon as one of their natural competent host and sentinel animals within highly populated urban environments in tropical cities.

Atmospheric Occurrence of Legacy Pesticides, Current Use Pesticides, and Flame Retardants in and around Protected Areas in Costa Rica and Uganda.

Protected areas have developed alongside intensive changes in land use and human settlements in the neighboring landscape. Here, we investigated the occurrence of 21 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), 14 current use pesticides (CUPs), 47 halogenated flame retardants (HFRs), and 19 organophosphate esters (OPEs) in air around Las Cruces (LC) and La Selva (LS) Biological Stations, Costa Rica, and Kibale National Park (KNP), Uganda using passive air samplers (PAS) with polyurethane foam (PUF) discs (PAS-PUF). Significantly higher concentrations of CUPs were observed around LS, while LC had a higher concentration of OCPs. Land use analysis indicated that LS had a higher fraction of agriculture than LC (33% vs 14%), suggesting the higher CUPs concentration at LS was related to pesticide intensive crops, while higher OCPs concentration at LC may be attributed to the area's long agricultural history characterized by small-scale subsistence farming or long-range transport. In Uganda, CUPs and OCPs were generally lower than in Costa Rica, but high concentrations of HFRs were observed inside KNP, possibly due to human activity at research camps near the protected forest. This is the first study that documented the occurrence of anthropogenic chemicals in the air at protected areas with tropical forests.

Permanencia de la cobertura natural en dos propuestas de conectividad entre áreas silvestres protegidas de Costa Rica

Introducción: Las zonas ribereñas constituyen una alternativa para lograr conectividad en paisajes donde la cobertura natural ha sido fragmentada. Objetivo: Analizamos la conectividad estructural entre dos áreas silvestres protegidas de Costa Rica mediante zonas ribereñas y una ruta oficialmente establecida. Métodos: Las áreas silvestres protegidas fueron la Reserva Biológica Lomas Barbudal y la Zona Protectora Mirallaves, ubicadas hacia el noroeste del país, en la provincia Guanacaste. A partir de la clasificación supervisada de dos imágenes Landsat de los años 1997 y 2017, obtuvimos la cobertura de la tierra en las zonas ribereñas y la ruta oficial. Con base en esta información analizamos la permanencia del bosque en las dos propuestas de conectividad y calculamos varios indicadores de fragmentación. Resultados: El bosque fue más extenso y permanente en las zonas ribereñas que en la ruta oficial; no obstante, en ambas propuestas de conectividad se encontraron sectores con concentración de cobertura boscosa distantes entre sí y una interrupción de tal conectividad. En el caso de la ruta oficial, la interrupción se debió principalmente a áreas urbanas mientras que en las zonas ribereñas al desarrollo agrícola. Conclusión: A partir de los hallazgos del presente estudio, resulta razonable proponer las zonas ribereñas como rutas de conectividad estructural entre las áreas silvestres protegidas involucradas; sin embargo, tanto en estas zonas como en la ruta oficial es necesario recuperar dicha conectividad.

Genetic diversity and geographic distribution of Bemisia tabaci and Trialeurodes vaporariorum in Costa Rica

The tobacco whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) cryptic species complex and of the greenhouse whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) are extensively reported as destructive pests in vegetable crops worldwide. A survey was conducted in 2011 and 2012 to determine the occurrence and genetic diversity present in the populations of these whiteflies in the major vegetable production areas of Costa Rica. Insect samples were collected from sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and weeds present in commercial crops either in open field or greenhouse conditions. PCR‐RFLP analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene (mtCOI) sequences of 621 whitefly individuals confirmed the presence of the Mediterranean (MED) type of the B. tabaci and of T. vaporariorum in most sampled regions. Also, individuals of the Middle East‐Asia Minor 1 (MEAM1) type of the B. tabaci were observed in low numbers. Contingency analyses based on type of crop, geographical region, whitefly species, year of collection and production system confirmed that T. vaporariorum was the most frequent species in vegetable production areas in Costa Rica, both in greenhouses and in open fields. B. tabaci MED is likely spreading to new areas of the country, whereas B. tabaci MEAM1 was mostly absent or rarely found. Comparisons of mtCOI sequences from B. tabaci individuals revealed the presence of four B. tabaci sequence haplotypes (named MED‐i, MED‐ii, MEAM1‐i, MEAM1‐xviii) in Costa Rica, three of them identical to B. tabaci haplotypes previously reported in the Western Hemisphere and other parts of the world. Analysis of sequences of T. vaporariorum individuals revealed a more complex population with the presence of 11 haplotypes, two of which were identical to T. vaporariorum sequences reported from other countries.