Paddy Field Area Research Articles

Spatial-Temporal Analysis of Land Cover Change and Oil Palm Expansion in Gunung Mas

Abstract: The area of oil palm plantations in Indonesia has increased over time. The growth of oil palm plantations even exceeds the percentage of the area of paddy fields, especially in Gunung Mas Regency. This phenomenon is accompanied by the implementation of "Regional Regulation No. 1 of 2020 concerning Land Fire Control". The regulation aims to prevent land fires due to human activities. However, local people believe that burning can increase land productivity. As a result, many people convert their land to plant oil palm, because it is considered to guarantee economic improvement compared to paddy fields. Remote sensing satellite imagery is the basis and main source in the analysis. With spatio-temporal analysis, mapping of land use changes in a certain period of time and its relationship with the distribution of agricultural wet and dry areas. As a result, the proportion of palm oil land in Gunung Mas Regency is higher than the proportion of paddy fields. If oil palm expansion continues in the future, agricultural drought could become more widespread. Keywords: Expansion of oil palm, Land use change, Paddy Fields, Remote sensing, Spatio-Temporal Analysis

Characteristics of Production Factors and Production of Zero Tillage System Rice Farming

Zero tillage system is able to prepare the land for plants to grow and produce well by paying attention to the ecological balance of the environment, especially water and soil. The purpose of this study was to determine the characteristics of production factors and production characteristics of rice paddy farming with no-tillage system. This research used descriptive method, conducted in Taram village, Harau sub-district. Sample determination using snowball sampling method, with a total sample of 50 farmers. Data collection by interview using questionnaires for primary data and documentation method for secondary data. Data analysis used qualitative descriptive analysis with a triangulation approach. The results showed the characteristics of production factors include: paddy field area 0.25 - 2.0 ha, seed requirement 8 - 60 kg/acre, compost fertiliser 0.25 - 2 tonnes/acre, Urea fertiliser 25 - 200 kg, NPK Phonska fertiliser 25 - 200 kg, herbicide 1 - 3 litres, insecticide 1 - 2 litres, labour consists of labour within the family and labour outside the family, including: Labour and female labour, and capital consists of cash, hoes, and knapsack sprayers. The amount of farm labour can be reduced by up to 145%, especially in land preparation activities, because there is no tillage and only spraying of residual rice stalks and weeds. Rice production characteristics: Total production of 800 - 6,200 Kg/acre, with an average of 2,262.80 Kg. The selling price of rice production was IDR 7,500/kg - IDR 7,800/kg, with an average of IDR 7,710/Kg.

Mapping the soil organic matter content in Northeast China considering the difference between dry lands and paddy fields

Mapping the soil organic matter (SOM) content of cultivated lands at the regional scale is of great significance for evaluating the cultivated land quality and monitoring the soil carbon cycle, especially in the fertile black-soil area of China. The large paddy fields area is one of the characteristics of the black-soil area in Northeast China. The vast differences between paddy fields and dry lands may pose a major challenge in mapping the SOM contents of local cultivated lands. In this study, the SOM of cultivated lands in Northeast China is taken as the research object, and all available Landsat-8 images from 2014 to 2022 and the main environmental covariates (climate and terrain) are obtained. By combining the random forest regression algorithm, SOM prediction models of paddy fields and dry lands are established to evaluate the optimal window period and appropriate environmental covariates for paddy fields and dry lands. Finally, the accuracy difference between the global regression and local regression results for distinguishing paddy fields and dry lands is compared. The results showed that (1) the SOM content in Northeast China increased gradually from south to north, and the average SOM content in paddy fields was approximately 0.4 % higher than that in dry lands; (2) the SOM mapping time windows in paddy fields and dry lands in Northeast China differed, with paddy fields mapped in April and dry lands mapped in May; (3) the addition of environmental covariates improved the SOM prediction accuracy, with a greater importance for mapping SOM in paddy fields than in dry lands; and (4) the local regression results based on the division of paddy fields and dry lands achieved the highest prediction accuracy, with the highest determination coefficient (R2) being 0.653 and lowest root mean square error (RMSE) being 1.144 %. This study proves that different types of arable land have a great impact on the SOM prediction accuracy. Researchers should adopt different strategies to map the SOM contents of paddy fields and dry lands.

Analysis of land cover change in Magelang Regency And Magelang City over 15 years

Background: Land cover change is an ongoing phenomenon with significant impacts on the environment and human quality of life. An analysis of land cover change was conducted in the Magelang area, which includes both Magelang Regency and Magelang City, over a period of fifteen years from 2007 to 2023. This study aims to analyze these changes using spatial methods based on land cover maps from 2007 and 2023. Method: In this analysis, land cover was classified into five categories: settlements, dry fields, paddy fields, forests, and plantations, and then compared between the two years. Result: The analysis results demonstrate a significant increase in the area of settlements and dry fields, reflecting urban and rural development. On the other hand, there has been a decrease in the area of paddy fields and forests, which may be related to land conversion for industrial or infrastructure purposes. The change in the area of plantations was not significant, indicating continuity in the management of these lands. Conclusion: The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the dynamics of land cover change in the region and can serve as a basis for further actions to maintain a balance between development and environmental conservation. Novelty/Originality of this study: This study presents the first longitudinal spatial analysis of land cover changes over 15 years (2007–2023), revealing significant trends in urban and rural land use dynamics. This study provides a scientific basis for sustainable spatial planning by highlighting the urgency to balance development infrastructure with preserving farmland and forests.

A Decade Analysis (2013-2023) of Paddy's Yield Productivity by Using Landsat 8 Imagery in Sukoharjo District, Indonesia

Sukoharjo District has the highest rice productivity in Central Java. Sukoharjo has a strategic location. It makes this area prone to land use changes. It makes a severe impact on Paddy's productivity. This condition needs to be monitored continually. Remote sensing can provide an efficient and accurate method to solve this condition. Using the NDVI from Landsat 8 imagery and ubinan data, the model can be built to calculate and analyze paddy’s productivity. The steps were 1) interpretation of paddy fields area; 2) calculation of NDVI’s mean values a month before harvesting; 3) interpretation accuracy test; 4) correlation value between NDVI and ubinan data in 2022; 5) calculation of paddy productivity; and 6) analysis. Within a decade (2013-2023), there was a reduction in paddy's yield area for 981.90 Ha. During that period, there was an increase in paddy's productivity, around 38.2 x 103 tons. Almost all sub-districts in Sukoharjo’s yield had been reduced except for Tawangsari and Weru. Kartasura and Grogol have experienced an intensive change in paddy yields to non-paddy yields. Intensive land use changes affected paddy’s productivity. Multi-temporal imagery combined with ubinan data can be used to monitor paddy’s productivity. Forty-one points were calculated for the y (productivity) and x (NDVI value) equation. The equation resulting from this method (y=6.2212x+6.7444) can be used as a reference for calculating productivity in Sukoharjo District in different periods. From different calculations, the accuracy obtained from this method was 86%.Keywords: Landsat 8; NDVI; Paddy’s Productivity; Sukoharjo; Ubinan data

Dampak Alih Fungsi Lahan Sawah ke Kolam Ikan Air Tawar terhadap Pendapatan Petani di Kecamatan Padang Gelugur, Kabupaten Pasaman

This research aims to investigate two main aspects in Padang Gelugur Subdistrict, Pasaman Regency: first, the change in paddy field area into fish ponds from 2017 to 2022; second, to analyze the factors influencing this land conversion. The research method used is a mixed methods approach, which integrates quantitative and qualitative data to answer research questions related to behavior, social, and health aspects. The research results indicate that during the period from 2017 to 2022, approximately 144 hectares of paddy fields were converted into fish ponds. The main factors driving the community to undertake this land conversion include the significant income difference between paddy harvests and fish ponds, with income from fish ponds tending to be higher. Additionally, educational factors and weather conditions also play a significant role, particularly as Padang Gelugur Subdistrict frequently experiences high rainfall intensity, which can lead to flooding and crop failure.

Impact of land-use change on ecological vulnerability in the Yellow River Basin based on a complex network model

The Yellow River Basin in China, which is characterized by significant soil erosion and arid to semi-arid conditions, has experienced severe ecological issues due to prolonged excessive development and land-use changes. Studies on ecosystem vulnerability have become a major basis for supporting the sustainable and healthy development of watershed ecosystems. Based on the land-use data of 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020, this study used a complex network model to identify the key types of land-use transformation in the Yellow River Basin. The cascade failure model was used to evaluate the impact of land-use transformation on ecological vulnerability in the Yellow River Basin of China. The land-use changes in the Yellow River Basin from 2000 to 2020 exhibit significant heterogeneity in both quantity and direction. Among them, the total area of agricultural land showed a downward trend as a whole, and the area rebounded slightly from 2000 to 2015. The growth trend of construction land area is obvious, with a year-on-year increase of 46.81 % in 20 years. Through network identification, we found that ecological land types such as forest, grassland, and dryland are the primary factors contributing to land area outflow. Conversely, artificial land types including urban land, rural residential land, and other built-up land predominantly serve as factors for land area inflow. The Yellow River Basin experiences frequent land-use transitions, resulting in the poor stability of the land transfer network. However, the study reveals that the ecosystem service value increases as the areas of paddy fields, dryland, urban land, rural residential land, and bare land decrease; this trend contributes to mitigating ecological vulnerability. To ensure the overall stability of the ecosystem and implement healthy and sustainable development, the maximum reduction in the areas of dryland, forest, paddy, and grass should be limited to 40 %, 30 %, 50 %, and 50 %, respectively, in future planning and design processes. In conclusion, the land-use transformation in the Yellow River Basin of China has profound implications for ecological vulnerability. The research findings can provide valuable references for future ecological research on areas facing similar challenges in protecting ecological fragility.

Distribution and source of contamination of heavy metal mercury at paddy field in Mandailing Natal Regency, North Sumatera, Indonesia

Mandailing Natal Regency is administratively located in North Sumatera Province with 662,070 hectares width and a paddy field area of 40,051 hectares. Batang Gadis River stream is 180 KM long and became the source of livelihood for people in Mandailing Natal Regency as the source of drinking water, irrigation, and protein food source such as fish. Unlicensed Gold mining (PETI) occurred massively in Mandailing Natal Regency precisely at Sub-District Muara Sipongi, Sub-District Ulu Pungkut, Sub-District Huta Bargot, and Sub-District Naga Juang. The use of mercury for the amalgamation process in gold mining produces mercury waste which the run-off stream to the irrigation canals and at the end stream to Batang Gadis River Flow. This research conducted the distribution and source of contamination of heavy metal mercury at paddy fields in Mandailing Natal Regency, North Sumatera, Indonesia. The research was conducted to take soil sample analysis from paddy fields as much as 100 points from 20 paddy field locations near the amalgamation place or the water source for irrigation from Batang Gadis River that spread in five sub-districts. The soil sample analysis took for 25 cm depth. The results showed that the mercury concentration in all rice fields studied exceeded the quality standard threshold with the highest concentration found in Sub-District Naga Juang as much as 11.47 ppm followed by Sub-District Hutabargot with 10,77 ppm concentration. The factor that determines the paddy soil contamination by the mercury was the amalgamation waste which directly streams to irrigation canals compared with the paddy field with irrigation canals direct from the Batang Gadis River.

Dynamic change and driving response of shallow groundwater level based on random forest in southwest Songnen Plain

Study regionThe southwest Songnen Plain in China.Study focus:This study investigated the multi-time groundwater dynamic types and the trends of groundwater level. Random forest model was applied to analyse on driving factors of groundwater level.New hydrological insights:This study selected the following data from four periods in 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020: groundwater depth, precipitation, evaporation, groundwater extraction, dry field area, and paddy field area. Pearson correlation analysis, Kriging interpolation, Mann-Kendall test, and other methods were employed to determine the groundwater dynamic types and changes in level within the four periods. Pearson correlation analysis shows that the dynamic types of groundwater table change greatly in the four periods, and the correlation between groundwater depth and precipitation decreases first and then increases. Kriging interpolation showed that the groundwater depth was lower in the west, and the depth around irrigation areas was higher. The Mann-Kendall test showed that the groundwater depth changed abruptly over time during the irrigation period and rainy season; the average groundwater depth increased by 1.36 m from 2005 to 2010, but only by 0.09 m from 2010 to 2020. The random forest model of groundwater level dynamics and its driving factors was established, and it was found that the size of the paddy field had the greatest influence on groundwater dynamics, affecting 32.15%.

Spatiotemporal patterns of water volume and total organic carbon concentration of agricultural reservoirs over South Korea

Lacking of available water quality data causes the limited understanding of the coupled dynamics of hydrologic and nutrient cycles in lakes and reservoirs and along river streams. This study conducts the rotated Principal Component Analysis (rPCA) of water volume and total organic carbon (TOC) concentration data from ∼2200 agricultural reservoirs in South Korea to extract the major modes of their spatiotemporal variability. Over 2020–2022, the total TOC load in the reservoirs ranges between 1,165 and 1,492 tons (289 and 360 Mtons of water storage volume; 3.54 and 4.60 mg/L of TOC concentration). The first rPCA mode is assoicated with a decreasing trend of water level (38 % of the explained variance) and increasing trend of TOC concentration (27 %) over the southern Korea region, where the TOC concentration increased during the 2022 drought. The second rPCA mode is associated with interannual variability of water level (25 %) and TOC concentration (18 %) over the central Korea region. This study found a marginal relationship between paddy field area and TOC concentration and their regime shift to high TOC concentration during the 2022 drought, which was a potential cause of the increased TOC concentration in 2022. This study provided observational evidence of interactions between water volume and TOC concentration during a severe drought, suggesting a possible shift of the role of agricultural reservoirs to carbon source.

Spatial and Temporal Distribution of the Ecosystem Provisioning Service and Its Correlation with Food Production in the Songhua River Basin, Northeastern China

Provisioning services are essential components of ecosystem services. Food production is usually a driver of land use change, which has the effect on altering the provisioning services of ecosystems. As one of the main areas of food production in China, the provisioning services of the Songhua River Basin (SHRB) should be taken seriously. In view of this, it is urgent to carry out a study on the assessment of provisioning services in the SHRB to provide data support and scientific reference for the optimization of the spatial pattern of land use in the basin, the sustainable development of agriculture, and the formulation of differentiated protection policies. In this study, based on the equivalent factor method for the unit area value and spatial autocorrelation with the Moran’s I, we assessed the provisioning services values (PSV) of the SHRB every ten years during the period of 2000–2020 under different land use types and analyzed the relationships between different PSV and the production of four different food types, including rice, wheat, corn, and soja. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) From 2000 to 2020, the area of paddy fields in the SHRB increased and then decreased, while the area of dry lands continued to increase. The land use transfer matrix showed a significant expansion of paddy fields (+0.55 × 104 km2), shrinkage of grassland (−0.72 × 104 km2), and loss of water body (−0.43 × 104 km2) in the SHRB from 2000 to 2020; (2) The PSV in the SHRB showed an increasing trend from 2000 to 2020, growing by 16.73 × 1010 RMB, with the growth in 2010–2020 being greater than in 2000–2010. The order of increase in each type of PSV was: water supply > food supply > raw material supply; (3) Spatially, the increase in PSV per unit and total PSV in the SHRB was lesser in the center and greater in the east and west. Meanwhile, the spatial distribution of various PSV showed that the value of unit area food supply was higher in the central and eastern plains, while the raw material supply and water supply were higher in the western and eastern hilly areas. (4) In terms of spatial correlation, the distribution of soja production with the total PSV, food supply, raw materials supply, and water supply services values were positively spatially correlated. However, the production of rice, wheat, and corn with the total PSV, food supply, and raw materials supply services values were negatively spatially correlated. Cluster analysis revealed that changing the crop cultivation structure could protect the ecosystem and increase the value of ecosystem services.

Food Availability Analysis based on Land Suitability Evaluation on Paddy Production in Banyumas Regency, Indonesia

Land suitability evaluation for specific uses can be prepared based on land conditions, in this case for paddy plants, which are the basic staple food of the community. This study aims to determine the land suitability for paddy, determine land balance which is based on the area of paddy fields and built-up land to determine the potential of existing land reserves, and to determine paddy productivity. The research was conducted in Banyumas Regency in three districts, Kedungbanteng, Patikraja, and Purwojati as sampling area. The methods used in this study are land suitability analysis with the land unit approach method and land suitability based on SPKL version 2.0 weighted factor method, land resource balance analysis by calculating the reserve of land resources to determine the amount of paddy reserves, and food security analysis with qualitative descriptive method. The results showed that the land suitability class for paddy in Kedungbanteng District was dominated by class N with the highest value of Ntc/eh/lp of 25,57%, Patikraja District by class S2 with the highest value of S2c of 20,13%, and Purwojati District by class Neh of 51,51%. The only district that still has land reserves that can be used is Purwojati District of 635 ha. Food security in Kedungbanteng District has the highest land productivity, followed by Patikraja District with stagnant land productivity, and Purwojati with low land productivity.

Rice Terraces Enhanced the Hydrological Stability of Small Watershed with LUCC—A Case Study of Xinhua Basin

Rice terraces are crucial for agriculture in China’s southern mountainous regions. Land use and land cover change (LUCC) in these areas impact hydrology, but our understanding is limited. In this study, we applied the hydrological assessment tool SWAT to a selected small watershed in the rice terrace-dense area of central Hunan province, China. This study covered four LUCC periods over the past 40 years and was simulated at annual and monthly scales. The results showed that from 1980 to 2020, the areas of paddy fields and drylands decreased by 4.19% and 5.76%, respectively, while the areas of forests and construction land increased by 1.14% and 92.48%, respectively. During the past period, LUCC led to a decrease of 1.77% and 2.49% in runoff and infiltration, respectively, and an increase of 1.03% in ET. However, the water yield remained almost unchanged, indicating that the rice terrace plays a positive role in maintaining stable watershed water yield under LUCC. The results of the sub-basin analysis indicated that the transformation of paddy fields and forests directly determines the trend of hydrological changes. Land use type had the most significant impact on the runoff of the rice-terrace watershed, with the proportions of paddy fields and forests being the most influential factors. Paddy fields significantly influenced the stability of runoff at the watershed scale, suggesting that a high paddy field ratio doesn’t ensure sustainability. This study offers valuable insights for managing small watershed terraces, land use planning, and achieving sustainable development in the watershed.

Constructing a map of potassium inputs to paddy fields from irrigation

Geographical and geological parameters, including land use, lithology, and water quality, and volume of irrigation were investigated to map K inputs into paddy fields from irrigation in the eastern part of Fukushima, Japan. This area has had one of the greatest needs for K maintenance worldwide due to the control of radiocesium uptake by plants after the Fukushima nuclear accident in 2011. The K+ concentration in irrigation water and its sources was in the range of 0.2–5.2 mg L−1, which was probably affected by both the natural conditions (e.g., amount of silicate mineral dissolution and presence of hot springs and coal seams) and human activities (e.g., agriculture and urbanization). Irrigation volume was estimated to range from 306 to 2300 mm in response to daily water requirement rates. K inputs were computed by multiplying the concentrations and volumes, giving estimated inputs of 2.5–133 kg K2O ha−1 crop−1. The inputs proved spatially variable and were high in the western and southeastern parts of the study area. Irrigation was estimated to supply more than half of the K application rate in the rice cultivation guidelines to 12% of the paddy field area. This map should provide useful information for devising K maintenance plans.

Integration of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle and Multispectral Sensor for Paddy Growth Monitoring Application: A Review

Using a conventional approach via visual observation on the ground, farmers encounter difficulties monitoring the entire paddy field area, and it is time-consuming to do manually. The application of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) could help farmers optimise inputs such as water and fertiliser to increase yield, productivity, and quality, allowing them to manage their operations at lower costs and with minimum environmental impact. Therefore, this article aims to provide an overview of the integration of UAV and multispectral sensors in monitoring paddy growth applications based on vegetation indices and soil plant analysis development (SPAD) data. The article briefly describes current rice production in Malaysia and a general concept of precision agriculture technologies. The application of multispectral sensors integrated with UAVs in monitoring paddy growth is highlighted. Previous research on aerial imagery derived from the multispectral sensor using the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) is explored to provide information regarding the health condition of the paddy. Validation of the paddy growth map using SPAD data in determining the leaf’s relative chlorophyll and nitrogen content is also being discussed. Implementation of precision agriculture among low-income farmers could provide valuable insights into the practical implications of this review. With ongoing education, training and experience, farmers can eventually manage the UAV independently in the field. This article concludes with a future research direction regarding the production of growth maps for other crops using a variety of vegetation indices and map validation using the SPAD metre values.

Japanese consumer's visual marketing preferences and willingness to pay for rice produced by biodiversity‐friendly farming

AbstractA market‐based approach for biodiversity conservation can promote sustainable food production, but little is known about how consumers perceive rice and organisms conserved through biodiversity‐friendly farming (BFF). To address this gap, we conducted a web survey of 600 Japanese respondents to investigate their visual preferences for 20 photographs of organisms and landscapes found in paddy field areas and their willingness to pay (WTP) for BFF rice. Our results showed that paddy field landscapes were most preferred, followed by plants and birds, while insects and an endangered frog were the least preferred. Lowland flat and mountainous terraced paddy landscapes were most often selected as package photographs for BFF rice. Most respondents were willing to pay a premium of 0%–30% for BFF rice. Interest in biodiversity conservation was a common respondent characteristic, and it had a relatively strong influence on image preferences and WTP. Presence of children in certain age groups, sex, age, and experience with living near farmlands or conservation activities also affected the image preference or WTP answers, but to a lesser extent. These findings reveal consumer perceptions of BFF and the importance of effective eco‐labeling strategies for communicating conservation activities and improving promotion of sales to consumers.

Mapping Paddy Rice in Rice–Wetland Coexistence Zone by Integrating Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 Data

Accurate mapping of vegetation in the coexisting area of paddy fields and wetlands plays a key role in the sustainable development of agriculture and ecology, which is critical for national food security and ecosystem balance. The phenology-based rice mapping algorithm uses unique flooding stages of paddy rice, and it has been widely used for rice mapping. However, wetlands with similar flooding signatures make rice extraction in rice–wetland coexistence challenging. In this study, we analyzed phenology differences between rice and wetlands based on the Sentinel-1/2 data and used the random forest algorithm to map vegetation in the Poyang Lake Basin, which is a typical rice–wetland coexistence zone in the south of China. The rice maps were validated with reference data, and the highest overall accuracy and Kappa coefficient was 0.94 and 0.93, respectively. First, monthly median composited and J-M distance methods were used to analyze radar and spectral data in key phenological periods, and it was found that the combination of the two approaches can effectively improve the confused signal between paddy rice and wetlands. Second, the VV and VH polarization characteristics of Sentinel-1 data enable better identification of wetlands and rice. Third, from 2018 to 2022, paddy rice in the Poyang Lake Basin showed the characteristics of planting structure around the Poyang Lake and its tributaries. The mudflats were mostly found in the middle and northeast of Poyang Lake, and the wetland vegetation was found surrounding the mudflats, forming a nibbling shape from the lake’s periphery to its center. Our study demonstrates the potential of mapping paddy rice in the rice–wetland coexistence zone using the combination of Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 imagery, which would be beneficial for balancing the changes between paddy rice and wetlands and improving the vulnerability of the local ecological environment.

Phosphorus forms and adsorption properties of paddy field soils and potential risk to Indawgyi Lake, Myanmar

The largest freshwater and oligotrophic lake in northern Myanmar, called Indawgyi Lake, is at potential risk of eutrophication due to the phosphorus (P) export from nearby paddy fields. In this study, the P status of the soil of paddy fields and its potential mobility to the lake water to cause eutrophication have been evaluated. The Indawgyi Lake is the third largest lake in Asia and became a UNESCO biosphere reserve in June 2017 for its outstanding contribution to providing habitat for threatened birds and aquatic species. Although many other sources, e.g. high tourist interest, loss of natural forest areas, the gathering of pilgrims and lack of proper wastewater treatment plants are contributing to the P nutrients input to the lake, the increase of paddy fields around the lake area and use of synthetic fertiliser which exports to the lake is considered to the primary source of P export to the lake. In this study, the soil P was examined with different P extracted methods and P export to the lake was calculated. The extracted P differed in order and magnitude with different methods, and the order was increased in accordance with CaCl2 < DL-P < Olsen-P < BD-P < HCL-P < TP and for iron, it was HCl-Fe < TFe. All extracted Olsen-P was below 10 mg kg−1, which is below the critical level (30–172 mg kg−1) for P loss. On the other hand, the soil has a high P sorption capacity, and the maximum sorption capacity among the soil samples that were done with the Langmuir equation is 0.790 mg g−1. Our findings suggested that paddy fields are not contributing to the eutrophication of the lake at present. However, comparing the historical map around the lake area from 1944 to 2017, it has been found that the area of paddy fields around the lake has increased almost three-fold from 1944 to 2017. As a result of increasing paddy fields and synthetic fertiliser use, we can say that P export from paddy fields can cause severe eutrophication to the lake in the near future.

Investigating Pest Birds Problems and Potential Solutions in Sawah Ring, Tangkak

In the agricultural sector, especially paddy fields, birds are considered pests when they destroy the paddy plants by eating the grains and reducing crop production. Pest birds are a common problem in agriculture. Nevertheless, studies of the pest birds, particularly on their distribution, ecology, and management, are still scarce in Malaysia. One of the significant pest birds in this case study is the Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio). The objectives of this study are (1) to identify pest birds species (2) to investigate the behaviour of Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio) and (3) to provide potential solutions for pest birds problems to local farmers at Sawah Ring, Tangkak. The methods used were direct observation using binoculars, spotter scope, and a digital camera. Besides that, a survey through the distribution of questionnaires and interviews was also conducted among the local people at the study site. Five species of pest birds have been recorded, which are, Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio), Lesser Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna javanica), Scaly-breasted Munia (Lonchura punctulata), Javan Munia (Lonchura leucogastroides) and Baya Weaver (Ploceus philippinus). From the list, Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio), was identified as the most disturbing pest bird. The occurrence of this species were marked at Block 1, Block 3, Block 15, Block 16, Block 18, and Block 19 at Sawah Ring, Tangkak, and the species' behaviour (resting, nesting, feeding, etc.) was also recorded. In terms of solutions, several methods have been identified to overcome the pest bird problem based on the literature studies, such as physical and chemical repellent, buzzer and mesh networks, and also acoustic tools. Overall, pest birds are a significant problem in the paddy field areas of Sawah Ring, Tangkak. It reduced the quantity and quality of paddy production and caused losses to farmers. Understanding the occurrence and behaviour of pest birds is indeed crucial for better management of these pest bird species.

Arahan dan Strategi Perlindungan Lahan Sawah Untuk Mendukung Ketahanan Pangan Di Kabupaten Maros, Sulawesi Selatan

Integration of Maros Regency into the KSN Mamminasata and the increasing population has increased the conversion of rice fields. This research aims to (a) Analyze conversion of rice fields in Maros Regency period 2013-2042 (b) Analyze status of food balance in Maros Regency period 2023-2042, and (c) Formulate directions and strategies for protecting rice fields to support food availability in Maros Regency. The method used is visual interpretation of spot 5 satelite in 2012 and 2022 to obtain data on rice fields. The trend of paddy field conversion was obtained using spatial analysis. Paddy field data for 2042 was obtained based on prediction results using the Artificial Neurol Network (ANN) model using Land Change Modeler (LCM) application. Status of food balance in Maros Regency is obtained from the area of paddy fields in 2022 and 2042. The protection of paddy fields is based on 3 scenarios, using the rational method. Formulation of directions and strategies using the A'WOT method. The results of this research showed that land conversion in Maros Regency for the 2013-2023 period was 1,946 ha or 7%, while the 2023-2042 period had increased to 3,722 ha or 15%. The status of land balance in Maros Regency is a deficit from 2022 to 2042. The area of paddy fields must be protected to provide local food availability at 4,940 ha. The strategy for protecting rice fields is a strategy to improve the quality of rice fields to increase productivity, and strengthening policies that are more consistent and consequential.