Areas Of Large Cities Research Articles

Compulsory psychiatric care in Sweden 1979-1993. Prevalence of committed patients, discharge rates and area variation.

The prevalence of committed patients in mental health care from seven different inventories between 1979 and 1993 and rates of discharge from compulsory psychiatric care during 1984, 1988 and between 1 July 1992 and 30 June 1993 were studied by using statistics from the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare. Changes over time and area variation in prevalence and discharge rates were analysed in relation to mental commitment law reform, urbanization, number of psychiatric beds and locus of short-term psychiatric care. The prevalence of committed patients in psychiatric in-patient care and the discharge rates from compulsory psychiatric care rapidly decreased during the periods studied. Legal reforms in 1983 and 1992, which led to a strengthened legal influence on compulsory care procedures, were followed by further reductions in the use of compulsory psychiatric care. The reductions were found not only among patients with psychotic conditions, but also among patients given other diagnoses. The proportion of committed patients in relation to the total number of in-patients increased during the latter half of the 1980s. Area variations in the 26 counties (or corresponding health administrative areas) were significant and increased after the new legislation in 1992. The three large city areas had higher psychiatric bed rates and also higher compulsory care rates than other areas in the country. In the counties outside the large city areas, no connection was found between number of beds and prevalence of committed patients, and no relation was found between locus of care and rates of compulsory psychiatric care.

Aerosol Optical Properties in the Iranian Region Obtained by Ground-Based Solar Radiation Measurements in the Summer Of 1991

Abstract Solar radiation measurements were made using sun photometers and pyranometers during 31 May-7 June 1991 at several places in Iran and during 12 June-17 September 1991 at a fixed place, Bushehr, Iran. In the first period the aerosol optical thickness had values about 0.4 at the wavelength of 0.5 μm in the coastal area and about 0.2 in the plateau area. The Angstrom's exponent, which is the slope of optical thickness spectrum, had values around 1 for large city areas and less than 0.5 for inland arid areas. Chemical analyses of sampled air indicate an effect of fossil fuel burning from local sources. Such optical and chemical characteristics of atmospheres suggest that soil-derived coarse particles contributed considerably to the atmospheric turbidity in arid areas, whereas an active generation of aerosols was dominant near large cities. Significant rises in atmospheric turbidity were observed in the earlier part of the second period at Bushehr about once a week with a duration of about one day, wh...

SUSTAINABLE RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL OF MODERN PARKS IN LARGE CITIES

Abstract. The article discusses modern parks in the large city of Azerbaijan Baku and developed large cities of the world, their potential for sustainable recreation in the urban structure, as well as the issue of micro and macroclimate formation in the surrounding areas. In the course of the study, the area and functionality of existing recreational areas in large cities were compared, determined (using the example of the city of Baku) and their influence on the climatic indicators of existing territories. As a result of the analysis, the scale of the recreational potential of parks in large cities was determined. It also identifies the main points that should be paid attention to in the process of designing and reconstructing sustainable recreation areas, especially parks, in the future. In general, we come to the conclusion that in order to design or create large-scale recreational areas with sustainable development potential in the city of Baku, special attention should be paid to the functional diversity and landscape solution at the design and reconstruction stage for the sustainable development of parks. A convenient system of movement between roads, inclusive zones and other functional areas of the park should also be designed so that people with disabilities can comfortably move around the park. If inclusive zones do not exist, it is important to include them in the functional scheme of parks in the coming years

General practitioner distribution and population dynamics: Munich, 1950–1990

The problem of variable geographic distribution of physicians appears to be universal and intransigent. There is growing evidence from several developed countries of primary physicians avoiding areas in large cities increasingly populated by poor and ethnic minorities. This paper extends the research to Germany. Here, the changing population structure of Munich from 1950 through 1990, characterized by a large influx of foreign guestworkers, is illustrated. Selected changes in the medical care system and the role of the general practitioner pertinent to the question of supply and distribution are also discussed. Within this context, the geographic distribution of general practitioners' offices is examined for possible response to the concentration of foreigners in Districts within the City. In the aggregate, the distribution of general practitioners follows the geographic trends of the general population during the study period. However, geographic distribution of general practitioners varies widely on a District by District assessment. Though the exception, in several Districts there are indications that general practitioners may be avoiding locating offices in areas characterized by high density of foreign populations. This paper also draws attention to the importance of investigative scale to conclusions relating general practitioner distribution to spatial-temporal population trends.

POVERTY-AREA INSTABILITY: THE CASE OF CHICAGO

Recent studies have shown that (officially designated) poverty areas in large American cities have expanded geographically each decade since their inception in 1960. The territorial expansion of poverty areas in the 1970s was especially severe in Chicago, where new poverty-area growth exceeded the geographic extent of preexisting poverty areas. In the more recent decade of the 1980s, the expansion of Chicago's poverty areas slowed significantly. An analysis ofthis expansion process for Chicago, using 1970, 1980, and 1990 census data, illustrates that the movement of neighborhoods into and out of poverty is related to their previous poverty level, relative location, and rate of population loss. The recent slowdown in the geographic expansion of Chicago's poverty areas is highly correlated with the declining city-wide rate of population loss. Irrespective of this slowdown in territorial expansion, the residential function of Chicago's poverty areas is becoming increasingly obsolete as fewer and fewer people are residing in them.

Primary health care in London--changes since the Acheson report.

To examine changes in primary care in London in the 11 years since the Acheson report on primary health care in inner London. Analysis of key data from the family health services authority performance indicators and from the Department of Health; study of trends since the time of the Acheson report; examination of the provision of primary care in 1990-1 and its relation to health and social factors. Comparisons between the family health services authorities of inner London, outer London, and England as a whole, with a special study of Birmingham, Liverpool, and Manchester. The family health services authorities of England. There has been an improvement in the provision of primary care in inner London as judged by the criteria of the Acheson report, but these improvements have occurred only as part of an overall improvement in the provision of primary care in the country as a whole. None of the recommendations of the Acheson report specifically oriented to London have been implemented. There are some worrying trends in inner London, such as the increasing proportion of practices with more than 2500 patients. The problems faced by practitioners in inner London resemble those in other large inner city areas, but the primary care provision to deal with them is relatively poor.

A Study of the Heath Status of Korean Elderly

This Study was done to design and test an instrument to measure the health status of the elderly including physical, psychological and social dimensions. Data collection was done from July 18 to August 17, 1990. Subjects were 412 older persons in Korea. A convenience sample was used but the place of residence was stratified into large, medium and small city and rural areas. Participants located in Sudaemun-Gu, Mapo-Gu, and Kangnam-Gu, Seoul were interviewed by brained nursing students, and those in Chungju, Jonju, Chuncheon, and Jinju by professors of nursing colleges. Rural residents were interviewed by community health practitioners working in Kungsang-Buk-Do, Kyngsang-Nam-Do, Jonla Buk-Do, and Kyung Ki-Do. The tool developed for this study was a structured questionnaire based on previous literature and then tested for reliability and validity. This tool contained 20 physical health status items, 17 mental-emotional health status items and 38 social health status items. Physical health status items clustered in to six factors such as personal hygiene, activity, home management, digestive, sexual, sensory, and climatization functions. Mental-emotional health status items clustered into two factors, mental health and emotional health. Social health status items clustered into seven factors, grandparent, parent, spouse, friend, kinships, group member and religious role functions. Data analysis included percentage, average, S.D., t-test and ANOVA. The results of the analysis were as follows: 1. The tool measuring the health status of the elderly and developed for this research had a relatively high reliability indicated by a Cronbach = 0.97793. 2. Average score of the subjects physical health status was 4,054 in a 5 point likert scale, mental-emotional health status was 3.803, social health status was 2.939 and the total average was 3.521. The social status of the subjects was the lowest and the next was mental-emotional health status; physical health status was the highest. 3. Educational background, perceived health status, the amount of pocket money were related to physical and mental-emotional health status and family structure was related mental-emotional physical and social health status. Occupation was related to physical and mental-emotional status. Area of residence was related to mental-emotional and social status. Source of living in the expenses was related to physical and mental-emotional health status marital status to mental-emotional and social health status, and the number living in the home physical health status and religion to social health status.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Social Security Policies in Industrial Countries

After 25 years of expansion and liberalisation in the post-war period, social security policies in industrial countries have been encountering stresses and strains in the 1970s and 1980s in an environment of slower economic growth, concern over inflation and high unemployment. This has led to intensified controversy between conservatives, who blame economic instability on the generosity of the welfare state and liberals who defend the role of social security programmes in contributing to economic stability and preventing people from falling into poverty. The discussion focuses on questions such as the relative merits of earnings-related, income-tested and universal benefits; who bears the financial burden; and the impact of social security benefits on incentives to work. Among the controversial issues receiving considerable attention are the arguments over the persistence of high unemployment in Western Europe, the attacks on 'entitlements' that benefit the middle class and the growing problem of disadvantaged youth, especially in the ghetto areas of large cities in some of the Western European countries and in the United States.

The sky temperature in net radiant heat loss calculations from low-sloped roofs

The results of calculated and measured sky temperatures for a horizontal surface in clear night-time sky conditions are compared and discussed. In the case of large city areas (atmospheric pollution) the sky temperature may be about 10°C higher than the one calculated according to Swinbank's formula. The paper presents a quantitative analysis concerning the influence of the sky temperature values variations on net radiant heat loss and the heat balance of the low-sloped roofs.

Jane Jacobs' Ideas on Big, Diverse Cities: A Review and Commentary

Abstract Over the last quarter-century Jane Jacobs has developed the argument that the dense central areas of large cities are both quality living environments and the indispensable hatchery of new jobs and economic advances for society as a whole. Her most recent book, Cities and the Wealth of the Nations, extends her earlier urban design and economic thought to the regional, national, and international scales, and it completes the sketch of a general theory of planning. Despite her great popularity, her many formulations have not been summarized for professional planning audiences, located in the context of other planning ideas, or assessed for theoretical quality. This article addresses each of those topics. I find her theoretical strengths to be originality, emotional force, style, and timeliness. I give her mixed reviews for completeness, consistency, equity, technical design, and impact. Her weakest areas are in strategic detail, empirical verifiability, and documentation.

A point prevalence study of alcoholism and mental illness among downtown migrants

Since the 1960s the bulk of America's mentally ill have been deinstitutionalized to the community. A number of these people now live in the downtown areas of large cities in close association with the established vagrant culture which includes a significant portion of alcohol abusers. The bizarre and impoverished nature of the lives of these formerly institutionalized mentally ill citizens, coupled with their propinquity to government and business establishments, creates a social policy dilemma. A point prevalence study design was used to ascertain the demographic, physical, mental illness and alcohol abuse characteristics of a sample of a vagrant population which inhabits the downtown area of an American Northwest urban community. Analysis of the data of a sample of vagrants who frequent an emergency shelter and a single residence occupancy hotel demonstrated that the two groups were similar. Participants were predominantly male, white and in their mid thirties. Forty percent had never married and over 50% were high school educated and possess labor skills. Grouped data indicates that, in view of the dearth of literature describing the relationship of mentally illness and alcohol abuse, the psychiatric and alcohol use behavior of deinstitutionalized population requires further study.

Formation and Development of the Inner City in Osaka during the Japanese Industrialisation

The object of this paper is to clarify how the residential areas in large Japanese city, Osaka, developed their own distinctive characteristics in the course of industrialisation. The study covers the modern period from the Meiji Restoration (1860's) to the beginning of the Showa Era (late 1920's to 1930's). The built-up area in this period exactly corresponds to the present-day inner city area. This paper also examines how and why the problems relating to the present inner city such as economic decline, physical decay and social disadvantage appeared in the industrialisation process since the Meiji Era. The author holds the following viewpoints: First, most of the emerging factory workers are assumed to be members of lower class society. Secondly, the poorer areas, which later became the inner city area, were created through the inflows of above mentioned factory workers in the course of industrialisation. Therefore the formation of lower class residential areas provides the key factor for the study of inner city problems in Osaka. Study of the labor market are used in clarifying social and living conditions of factory workers in the course of industrialisation. So the author deals with the changing process of labor markets as the analytical tool and focuses on the level of laborers' daily lives. The inadequacies of the existing Anglo-Saxon models to the areal structure of the Japanese city are pointed out, since the Japanese urban residential expansion can only be understood by taking into consideration the peculiar characteristics of the Japanese modernisation process.The results obtained are as follows: The expansion of residential areas up to the beginning of World War I characterised mainly by the outward extension of the lower class residential areas that included most of the laborers working in the cotton textile industries, heavy industry and the miscellaneous industries. The labor markets in each industry were organised differently in this development. These laborers, however, all belonged to the essentially the same class, with no appreciable income or living standard differences among industries. The organisation of residential structure consistently reflected the periphery-lower class structure proposed by Sjoberg. After World War I, the following two new factors emerged: The first is the rapid increase of white collar office workers. The second is that of a growing distinction in standard of living as well as income among members of the former lower class society, i.e., between large heavy industry workers and other factory workers. These new two factors contributed to the transformation of residential structure independently of the existing structure. The most important development was the creation of new residential areas. In this stage three types of residential area were clearly observed. The first and dominant were lower class residential areas which surrounded the city center and extended outward, building up sparse areas among some flophouse districts even at this time. This area was also characterised by the progress of the slum clearance, appearance of Korean residential districts and real advent of social policies. The second type of residential area was that of the better-off factory workers, which was formed adjacent to the factories' sites. However, this type of residential area was distributed sporadically within the first type of residential area. Between them, there were found no appreciable distinctions of housing and living conditions. The third type was white collar office workers' residential areas, which were created beyond the lower class ones and restricted to the upland lying to the south-east of Osaka City. These areas were created independently of periphery-lower class structure, which had been the most dominant or sole areal differentiation up to this time.

Neighbourhood Change in Inner Adelaide, 1966-76

The inner residential areas of Australian cities have not experienced the neighbourhood decline associated with the restructuring of old British and US industrial cities. Rather, neighbourhood change near the centre of Australian cities during the 1960s and 70s has been characterised by reinvestment in land and structures. Residential rejuvenation in one such city is illustrated with a case study of Inner Adelaide between 1966 and 1976. This involves documenting the regional shift, 1966-76, in the occupational structure of the workforce residing in Inner Adelaide. Next we outline the main features of a typology which is then used to reveal the direction, nature and spatial expression of neighbourhood transition within Inner Adelaide, 1966-76. Lastly, some reasons are advanced for the predominantly upward trajectory of neighbourhood change in the inner areas of large Australian cities.

The Contribution of Housing Displacement to the Decline of the Boarding and Lodging Population in Adelaide, 1947-77

This paper critically examines the assumption that the decline of boarding and lodging within the inner areas of large Australian cities is due principally to its displacement by 'gentrification'. A case study of the boarding and lodging sector shows that it has been affected by the same set of market and institutional pressures that have produced net losses in population and housing stock in the City of Adelaide. In addition, it appears that demand for boarding and lodging has been eroded by processes externalto the housing system. The readiness to attribute the decline of Adelaide's boarding and lodging accommodation purely to housing displacement has caused researchers to misjudge aspects of the restructuring of inner area population and housing resources, and led to misallocation. A GENERAL consensus is emerging in Australian urban studies that the large-scale reallocation of property in the inner areas of the nation's largest cities since the mid-196os has caused the extensive displacement of the most vulnerable housing groups in the community (Berry, 1977; Centre for Urban Research and Action, 1977; Department of Environment, Housing and Community Development, 1978; Kilmartin and Thorns, 1978; Sandercock, 1975). These groups mainly comprise poor residents-elderly pensioners, migrant and/or unskilled bluecollar workers and their families, and boarding house tenants-who have been relegated by the market to the city's cheapest housing, which is traditionally concentrated in inner areas. Most commentaries stress that the majority of these poor residents are the losers in a class struggle centring on the use of the inner city's housing stock, and that 'gentrification', a transitional process whereby the class composition of a residential neighbourhood changes from workingto middle-class, is the chief agent of displacement. Inner city areas over the last decade have been the focus of tremendous competition over land use which has caused the displacement of vulnerable housing classes . . . The concept of housing classes is particularly relevant to situations of market scarcity or high demand which have been characteristic of the inner suburban housing market in recent years. The demand shift towards inner suburban houses has produced new threats to the housing of certain housing classes, such as boarding house tenants and low income private tenants. These housing classes have incurred a great liability to the risk of housing displacement (Centre for Urban Research and Action, 1977, pp. 2-3). Interpretations of inner city change that stress competition and conflict between housing

A Study on the Techniques of Nodal and Functional Regionalization

Several methods for the regionalization of nodal and functional regions and the classification of hierarchical orders of central places have been developed recently. In order to understand clearly the characteristics of each of the following five methods the writer conducted such a study by using data for telephone calls among 66×66 areas in the Chugoku District, Southwestern Japan.The main results are summarized as follows:(a) Direct connection method. This method has been generally used to demarcate the tributary areas of central places and to classify the hierarchical order by analysing only the nodal flows without considering the indirect flows for each place. The regionalization using this method was not satisfactory, because telephone districts as a basic unit of the analysis were often established artificially. It seems better to rank the order of each place while comparing with the central place of the highest order, Hiroshima, in the research area.(b) Graph theory method. In this method as it was used by Nystuen and Dacey indirect flows were added to the analysis basing on the graph theory. However, some problems, like the mathematical assignment of indirect flows to each route and the indefiniteness of indirect connection, are encountered in considering the volume of total association for each area. Again, with this method as with the direct connection method, there are some problems in the hierarchical ordering of central places, because only the largest flows are utilized. However, since the analyses of both matrices B'(=Y+Y2+Y3) and B arrived at the same result, the usefulness of matrix B analysis was verified, In addition, Fig. 2 which shows the distribution of nodal regions analysed by this method, was almost the same as Fig. 1 which shows the regionalization by the direct connection method.(c) Functional distance method. This method is used to measure the accessibility between each area by using mean first passage time (MFPT), to classify nodal and functional regions and to clarify the hierarchical structure of central places. The regionalization of nodal regions by the cluster analysis among places of origin in the matrix of MFPT is similar to that analysed by the direct connection and graph theory methods, except for a tendency toward the isolation of one or two remote rural areas from the main groups (Fig. 5). On the other hand, the hierarchical ordering of each area by the cluster analysis among places of destination in the matrix of MFPT as well as among column vectors of average MFPT did not correspond to the central place order because they do not measure the centrality of places but the accessibility itself within the research area. In addition, many of the higher order centres were integrated to one group contrary to Christaller's theory.Moreover, since the elements of standardized column vectors of MFPT have no tendency to be extremely low to the neighbouring area of large central cities the neighbouring effect of functional distance is emphasized for the nodal regionalization using shortest functional distance and the nodal regions for large central cities tend to be delimited narrowly (Fig. 6).(d) Factor analysis method. Factor analysis (principal axis method with varimax rotation) as well as the functional distance method extracts functional regions based on the similarity of the patterns of places of origin or destination. Since the origin-destination matrix contains many zero values it is necessary for the factor analysis to approach the normal distribution by some means of transformation. In Fig. 7, which shows the spatial distribution of areas with factor loadings over 0.5 and standardized factor scores over 1.0 for each factor within 13 factors extracted by R-method, some partial overlappings occur to functional regions of small factors.

The Assembling of Small-scale Factories in Tokyo

A large variety and number of small-cale factories are gathered in the large cities of Japan, such as Tokyo and Osaka. Considered from both aspects of production and land utilization, they carry various problems. What is being undertaken to solve such problems is the assembling program, involving the establishment of industrial estates and unit workshops, undertaken by the govern ment, both central and local.The purpose of this report is to examine the nature of the assembling programs being undertaken and what problems these programs have as observed in the measures undertaken to solve the variety of problems held by the small-scale factories compactly gathered in Tokyo, the largest city in Japan.One type of assembling of the small-scale factories in Tokyo is the industrial estates being established in the perimeter areas of the city. Six industrial estates-such as for production of ready-made clothing, metal toys, and electric implements-have been established. None of these estates have caused to weaken the productive capacity of similar industrial groups established in the internal areas of Tokyo.The second type of assembling is the assembling projects within the inner areas of the city. Examples are the estabilshment of the industrial estates built on reclarimed land along Tokyo Bay and the construction of unit workshops. The former was established primarily with an anti-pollution objective. It includes industries such as forging, casting, press work, and lumbering. The latter was aimed to lessen water pollution from disposals and includes industries such as metal plating, printing, and book binding.Each project has achieved its desired results but unsolved problems still remain. First among these is that among the small-scale factories those that can participate in the assembling program are the larger among them and thus the majority of the small-scale factories have not been benefited. The second is the work shop and housing problem. Presently, with most of the small-scale factories the workshop and housing facilities are located in the same place or, in other words, form a unit. This situation has been utilized by such factories to their advantage. Consequently, most small-scale factories do not desire assembling which calls for the separation of workshop and housing. The present program of assembling small-scale factories is not effectively functioning in the internal areas of large cities. The program of assembling small-scale factories must first consider the relation of production activity and land utilization before it can expect to achieve any measure of success.

Correlation Bandwidth and Delay Spread Multipath Propagation Statistics for 910-MHz Urban Mobile Radio Channels

Distributions of delay spread and correlation bandwidth at 0.9 and 0.5 correlation for Gaussian wide-sense stationary uncorrelated scattering (GWSSUS) channels associated with 100 small-scale areas at different locations within a 2 × 2.5 km region of New York City are presented. For delay spread the maximum value observed was 3\frac{1}{2};\mu s and l0 percent of the areas exceeded 2\frac{1}{2}\mu s; for correlation bandwidth at 0.9 correlation the minimum was 20 kHz and 10 percent of the areas were less than 30 kHz; for correlation bandwidth at 0.5 correlation the minimum was 55 kHz and 10 percent of the areas were less than 130 kHz. The region is representative of the heavily built-up areas of many large cities in the United States.

Distributions of multipath delay spread and average excess delay for 910-MHz urban mobile radio paths

Distributions of average excess delay and delay spread for Gaussian wide-sense stationary uncorrelated scattering channels associated with 100 small scale areas at different locations within a <tex xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2 \times 2.5</tex> -km region of New York City are presented. For delay spread the mean is <tex xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">1.3 \mu</tex> s, the standard deviation is <tex xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">0.6 \mu</tex> s, the maximum value observed is <tex xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">3\frac{1}{2}\mu</tex> s, and 10 percent of the areas exceeded <tex xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2\frac{1}{2} \mu</tex> s; for average excess delay the mean is <tex xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">1.1 \mu</tex> s, the standard deviation is <tex xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">0.9 \mu</tex> s, the maximum is <tex xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">4 \mu</tex> s, and 10 percent of the areas exceeded <tex xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2 \mu</tex> s. The region is representative of the heavily built-up areas of many large cities in the United States.

Studies on Aged Population in Korea

A sociomedical investigation was performed for the 2, 082 senile people aged over sixty of which one group was residing with family at large city area numbering 1, 337 (A group) and other group was accommodated in 16 Asylums out of total 43 throughout country numbering 745 (B group). Following conclusion was obtained .1. Marriage and number of children : 1) The age of marriage was 20.8 years of men, 17.8 years of women in A group; 20.1 of men, 16.9 of women in B group. 2) The spouse status showed bereavement 46.9%, spouse 41.8%, remarriage 2.7%, divorce 1.5% in A group; bereavement 69.3%, divorce 7.8%, spouses 4.2%, remarriage 3.0/ in B group, accordingly higher rate of non-spousing in B group. 3) Total number of children delivered was 5.3 in A group, 1.9 in B group and number of present children living was 4.1 in A group, 0.6 in B group.2. Living expense maintenance 1) As to the residing group at large city area, old person livable by their own income including wife supported by the husband's income were 38.7%, which consisted 16.8% of property income, 15.9% of own working and 2.4% of pension, and those of no income were 61.3%, of which the cases depended on their posterity were 57.7% and those depended on the relief assistance were 2.0%. Sex difference of their income living showed 56.1% in men and 27.0% in women which expressed more vitality in men. 2) As to the accommodated group at asylum in specific area, the motive of accommodation ranked 34.1 % of no family, 34.1 % of own request and 10.5% of no satisfactory family relationship, and cases of having posterity were 35.1 % and that of having relative 47.7%; and as for the communication, 18.1% of subject having posterity and 23.6% of that having relative and visiting from them ; and communication and interview frequency was 1-4 times at most ; and impression to asylums showed 80.4% of favorable and 4.0% of undesirable.3. Family composition and resident status of family group : Family size was 5.8 and the generation composition was 50.3% of three generations, 40.8% of two and 6.4% of one generation showing large and small family size. The subject lived with posterity rated 32.9% with son only, 5.6% with daughter only, and 2.8% of no inmate. Frequency of posterity visiting from apart-living showed over once a month rating 42.2%, several times a year 20.3% and no visiting 4.5%, and in case of subject visiting, over once a month 22.9%. several times 22.0% and no visiting 8.1%.4. Health status: Comparison of health status between risiding group with family (A) and accommodated group at asylum (B) was attempted as follows. 1) Vision : "no trouble" 51.3%, "hardly see" 38.4%, "can notsee" 6.5% in A group and 37.9%, 40.3%, 13.7%, respectively in B group. Audition; "no trouble" 65.0%, "hardly hear" 21.3% in A group and 53.4%, 34.4% respectively in B group, showing better vision and audition in A group. 2) Sleeping hour was 8.2 in A group and 8.0 hours in B group . 3) Age of menarche was 17.0 and menopause 48.2 in A group and 16. 8, 47.5 respectively in Bgroup. 4) Daily living custom showed : a) Tooth-brushing; "everday" 82.0%, "occasionally" 12.0%, "never" 3.4% in A group and 50.6%, 26.4%, 11.9% respectively in B group representing worse condition of B group. b) Smoking ; "not smoke" 43.0%, "smoke" 35.0%, "smoke if available" 13.2% in A group and 43.1%, 29.1%, 24.6% respectively in B group containing more smokers in A and more readiness in B group. c) Drinking, "not drink" 51.3%, "drink if available" 25.3%, "drink" 13.8% in A group and 49.8%, 27.7/, 18.1% respectively in B group showing half population of not drinking in both group.5. Hope and desire : The desirable subjects of residing group with family for the society and nation were as follows. 1) Subject dsired occupation was 34.8% out of total and the raeson was 15.4% for living maintenance. 19.4% for health and 64.4% of no response.

The Distribution of Schizophrenics in Nottingham

The distributions of selected schizophrenic populations in Nottingham are analysed. The main hypotheses concerning the aetiology of schizophrenia are discussed. The possibility that several aspects of the social and urban environment explain the areal variations in the incidence of schizophrenia is investigated by means of oblique factor analysis. The results suggest that these 'ecological' factors may form an important link in the causal chain. IN both theoretical and practical terms it can be argued that the distribution of mentally disturbed persons in urban areas should rank as an important field of research in social geography. Investigators from other sciences have preempted the work of geographers with graphic analyses showing the marked concentration of disordered persons in the inner, decaying areas of large cities.1 In England and Wales, such studies are available for Liverpool, Bristol, London, Salford and Sheffield.2 The present author is aware of only three such investigations by geographers, relating to Derby, Luton and Southampton.3 The dearth of theoretical and empirical geographical research in this field can partly be ascribed to the fact that urban geographers have generally restricted their attention to