Arcuate Nucleus Kiss1 Neurons Research Articles

The role of KNDy neurons in human reproductive health.

In the early 2000s, metastin, an endogenous ligand for G protein-coupled receptor 54 (GPR54), was discovered in human placental extracts. In 2003, GPR54 receptor mutations were found in a family with congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Metastin was subsequently renamed kisspeptin after its coding gene, Kiss1. Since then, studies in mice and other animals have revealed that kisspeptin is located at the apex of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and regulates reproductive functions by modulating gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). In rodents, kisspeptin (Kiss1) neurons localize to two regions, the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC) and the anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPV). ARC Kiss1 neurons co-express neurokinin B (NKB) and dynorphin and are thus termed KNDy neurons. Kiss1 neurons in humans are concentrated in the infundibular nucleus (equivalent to the ARC), with few Kiss1 neurons localized to the preoptic area (equivalent to the AVPV), and the mechanisms underlying GnRH surge secretion in humans are poorly understood. However, peripheral administration of kisspeptin to humans promotes gonadotropin secretion, and administration of kisspeptin to patients with hypothalamic amenorrhea or congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism restores the pulsatile secretion of GnRH/luteinizing hormone. Thus, kisspeptin undoubtedly plays an important role in reproductive function in humans. Studies are currently underway to develop kisspeptin receptor agonists or antagonists for clinical application. Modification of KNDy neurons by NKB agonists/antagonists is also being attempted to develop therapeutic agents for various menstrual abnormalities, including polycystic ovary syndrome and menopausal hot flashes. Here, we review the role of kisspeptin in humans and its clinical applications.

Dissecting the KNDy hypothesis: KNDy neuron-derived kisspeptins are dispensable for puberty but essential for preserved female fertility and gonadotropin pulsatility

BackgroundKiss1 neurons in the hypothalamic arcuate-nucleus (ARC) play key roles in the control of GnRH pulsatility and fertility. A fraction of ARC Kiss1 neurons, termed KNDy, co-express neurokinin B (NKB; encoded by Tac2). Yet, NKB- and Kiss1-only neurons are also found in the ARC, while a second major Kiss1-neuronal population is present in the rostral hypothalamus. The specific contribution of different Kiss1 neuron sub-sets and kisspeptins originating from them to the control of reproduction and eventually other bodily functions remains to be fully determined. MethodsTo tease apart the physiological roles of KNDy-born kisspeptins, conditional ablation of Kiss1 in Tac2-expressing cells was implemented in vivo. To this end, mice with Tac2 cell-specific Kiss1 KO (TaKKO) were generated and subjected to extensive reproductive and metabolic characterization. ResultsTaKKO mice displayed reduced ARC kisspeptin content and Kiss1 expression, with greater suppression in females, which was detectable at infantile-pubertal age. In contrast, Tac2/NKB levels were fully preserved. Despite the drop of ARC Kiss1/kisspeptin, pubertal timing was normal in TaKKO mice of both sexes. However, young-adult TaKKO females displayed disturbed LH pulsatility and sex steroid levels, with suppressed basal LH and pre-ovulatory LH surges, early-onset subfertility and premature ovarian insufficiency. Conversely, testicular histology and fertility were grossly conserved in TaKKO males. Ablation of Kiss1 in Tac2-cells led also to sex-dependent alterations in body composition, glucose homeostasis, especially in males, and locomotor activity, specifically in females. ConclusionsOur data document that KNDy-born kisspeptins are dispensable/compensable for puberty in both sexes, but required for maintenance of female gonadotropin pulsatility and fertility, as well as for adult metabolic homeostasis. Significance statementNeurons in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC) co-expressing kisspeptins and NKB, named KNDy, have been recently suggested to play a key role in pulsatile secretion of gonadotropins, and hence reproduction. However, the relative contribution of this Kiss1 neuronal-subset, vs. ARC Kiss1-only and NKB-only neurons, as well as other Kiss1 neuronal populations, has not been assessed in physiological settings. We report here findings in a novel mouse-model with elimination of KNDy-born kisspeptins, without altering other kisspeptin compartments. Our data highlights the heterogeneity of ARC Kiss1 populations and document that, while dispensable/compensable for puberty, KNDy-born kisspeptins are required for proper gonadotropin pulsatility and fertility, specifically in females, and adult metabolic homeostasis. Characterization of this functional diversity is especially relevant, considering the potential of kisspeptin-based therapies for management of human reproductive disorders.

Dissecting the Involvement of Arcuate Nucleus Kisspeptin Neurons in Puberty Onset and LH Secretion

Puberty is a crucial period of transition to adulthood, marked by an increased activation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons that drives increased pulsatile secretion of pituitary luteinizing hormone (LH). The mechanisms governing GnRH neuron activation at puberty remain unclear but are likely due to enhanced signaling from upstream neuron populations, including kisspeptin neurons. Kisspeptin (encoded by Kiss1) directly stimulates GnRH neurons to drive GnRH release and downstream LH secretion. Humans and animals with Kiss1 mutations fail to reach puberty, demonstrating kisspeptin’s importance in puberty onset. Nonetheless, the specific brain area(s) from where kisspeptin signaling arises to trigger puberty remain undetermined. Kisspeptin is primarily expressed in two hypothalamic areas, the arcuate nucleus (ARC) and anteroventral periventricular (AVPV) region. ARC Kiss1 neurons are known to drive pulsatile GnRH/LH secretion in both sexes whereas AVPV Kiss1 neurons are sexually dimorphic and mediate the preovulatory GnRH/LH surge in females. We previously showed that Kiss1 gene expression increases in both the ARC and AVPV across the peri-pubertal period, yet it still remains to be determined whether just one or both of these populations is essential for proper pubertal timing. Indeed, the relative involvement of either ARC or AVPV Kiss1 neurons in the pubertal process still remains unknown. Here, we hypothesized that ARC Kiss1 neurons are required for normal puberty timing in both sexes and, conversely, AVPV Kiss1 neurons are not sufficient on their own to trigger normal puberty. To test this hypothesis, we used transgenic mice expressing diphtheria toxin receptor (DTR) exclusively in Kiss1 cells (Kiss Cre/iDTR flox) and took advantage of the differential ontogeny of ARC and AVPV Kiss1 neurons to selectively ablate ARC kisspeptin neurons before puberty, while leaving AVPV neurons intact. We found that targeted deletion of just ARC Kiss1 neurons during the juvenile period (which does not alter AVPV Kiss1 cell number) significantly delays puberty onset in both sexes, as measured by vaginal opening, first estrous, and preputial separation. In addition, these mice also exhibit decreased basal and pulsatile LH secretion in adulthood, further supporting a role for ARC kisspeptin neurons in GnRH pulse generation. By contrast, females with ablated ARC Kiss1 cells still exhibit full estradiol-induced LH surges, ruling out a necessary role of ARC kisspeptin neurons in that process and further supporting AVPV kisspeptin as the primary regulator of the surge. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that ARC Kiss1 neurons are required for both properly timed activation of the reproductive axis during puberty and proper pulsatile LH secretion in adulthood, while AVPV Kiss1 neurons are not sufficient to drive normal puberty onset but are sufficient for the preovulatory LH surge.

SUN-LB57 Assessing the Requirement of Arcuate Nucleus Kisspeptin Neurons in Puberty Onset and Adult LH Secretion

Puberty is a critical developmental period marking the transition to adulthood and attainment of reproductive capability. A hallmark of puberty is increased pulsatile secretion of pituitary luteinizing hormone (LH) which is itself driven by increased gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the forebrain. The mechanisms governing GnRH neuron activation at puberty still remain unclear, but likely include enhanced stimulation from upstream reproductive neural circuits, including kisspeptin neurons. Kisspeptin is a potent stimulator of GnRH and is required for proper puberty onset. However, the specific brain site(s) from where kisspeptin signaling arises to trigger puberty remain unclarified. Kisspeptin is expressed in two primary nuclei in the hypothalamus, the arcuate nucleus (ARC) and anteroventral periventricular (AVPV) region. Studies suggest that, in adulthood, ARC Kiss1 neurons are involved in driving pulsatile secretion of GnRH (and hence, LH) in both sexes whereas AVPV Kiss1 neurons participate in the preovulatory GnRH/LH surge in females. However, the specific role of either kisspeptin neuron population in puberty onset still remains unknown. We previously showed that both kisspeptin populations show increased Kiss1 gene expression across the pubertal period, yet whether just one or both (or neither) population is needed for puberty to occur has not been determined. Here, we sought to tease out the role—if any—of ARC and AVPV Kiss1 neurons in the pubertal onset process. Since ARC Kiss1 neurons are abundant in both sexes and drive pulsatile GnRH secretion in adulthood, we hypothesized that ARC Kiss1 neurons are necessary for normal puberty onset and, conversely, that AVPV Kiss1 neurons are not sufficient on their own to induce normal puberty. To test this hypothesis, we used a Cre-specific diphtheria toxin approach to ablate just ARC Kiss1 neurons in juvenile mice (~ 2 weeks old) while leaving AVPV Kiss1 neurons intact. Preliminary data thus far indicates that site specific ablation of just ARC Kiss1 neurons during the juvenile period significantly delays puberty onset in both sexes, as measured by vaginal opening, first estrous, and preputial separation. In addition, selective ARC Kiss1 neuron ablation in juvenile life diminishes pulsatile LH secretion levels measured in adulthood, but does not alter LH surge generation in adult females. These preliminary findings empirically demonstrate that, in mice, ARC Kiss1 neurons are required for proper activation of the reproductive axis during puberty but not the LH surge in adulthood, and AVPV Kiss1 neurons are not sufficient to trigger normal pubertal onset.

SUN-243 Deletion of KNDy Neuron-Specific KISS1 Disrupts Estrous Cyclicity and LH Pulsatility in Female Mice

Kisspeptin (encoded by Kiss1), a neuropeptide critically involved in neuroendocrine regulation of reproduction, is primarily synthesized in two discrete hypothalamic nuclei: the anteroventral periventricular area (AVPV) and arcuate nucleus (ARC). AVPV Kiss1 is important for the pre-ovulatory luteinizing hormone (LH) surge unique to females as well as estrogen-induced positive feedback control of GnRH and LH. In contrast, ARC Kiss1 neurons, which largely co-express the neuropeptides NKB and dynorphin (collectively known as KNDy neurons), are major regulators of pulsatile release of GnRH and LH, and mediate estrogen-induced negative feedback control of both GnRH and LH. Previous studies have not fully separated the specific roles for Kiss1 in the AVPV versus KNDy-ARC neurons in the downstream control of GnRH and LH release. Therefore, we generated a Pdyn-Cre/Kiss1fl/fl (KO) mouse model to target Kiss1 in the KNDy neurons to differentiate KNDy neuron-specific function from AVPV Kiss1 function in the maturation and maintenance of the reproductive axis. qRT-PCR data documented a significant reduction of Kiss1 expression in the mediobasal hypothalamus (containing ARC) compared to controls, whereas Kiss1 in the preoptic area (containing AVPV) was similar in both KO and controls. Immunofluorescent IHC confirmed a loss of kisspeptin immunoreactivity in the ARC of KO animals while expression in the AVPV remained intact. Markers of pubertal onset (day of vaginal opening and first estrus in females; day of preputial separation in males) were normal in KO mice, suggesting that AVPV Kiss1 and/or other neural signals may be sufficient for pubertal onset. In addition, body weight throughout pubertal growth was comparable between KO and control animals of both sexes. Interestingly, KO female mice had disrupted estrous cycles presenting with persistent diestrus and a small vaginal opening. In order to test our hypothesis that conditional deletion of Kiss1 in KNDy neurons disrupts or ablates episodic GnRH/LH pulsatile release, we collected serial tail blood samples from mice at diestrus and measured LH. KO female mice exhibited significantly fewer LH pulses in a 3-hour timespan compared to controls, suggesting that KNDy neurons were functionally compromised. These observations indicate the central role of KNDy neurons in the regulation of GnRH/LH pulsatility and estrous cyclicity. The functional effects of disrupted estrous cyclicity and slower LH pulses observed in KO females are currently under study to assess potential abnormalities in ovarian folliculogenesis and fertility. Future experiments will determine whether ARC Kiss1 deletion disrupts the KNDy-driven negative feedback response of LH to gonadectomy, as well as address potential sex differences in ARC Kiss1-mediated negative feedback control of LH release.

Metabolic regulation of female puberty via hypothalamic AMPK–kisspeptin signaling

Conditions of metabolic distress, from malnutrition to obesity, impact, via as yet ill-defined mechanisms, the timing of puberty, whose alterations can hamper later cardiometabolic health and even life expectancy. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), the master cellular energy sensor activated in conditions of energy insufficiency, has a major central role in whole-body energy homeostasis. However, whether brain AMPK metabolically modulates puberty onset remains unknown. We report here that central AMPK interplays with the puberty-activating gene, Kiss1, to control puberty onset. Pubertal subnutrition, which delayed puberty, enhanced hypothalamic pAMPK levels, while activation of brain AMPK in immature female rats substantially deferred puberty. Virogenetic overexpression of a constitutively active form of AMPK, selectively in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC), which holds a key population of Kiss1 neurons, partially delayed puberty onset and reduced luteinizing hormone levels. ARC Kiss1 neurons were found to express pAMPK, and activation of AMPK reduced ARC Kiss1 expression. The physiological relevance of this pathway was attested by conditional ablation of the AMPKα1 subunit in Kiss1 cells, which largely prevented the delay in puberty onset caused by chronic subnutrition. Our data demonstrate that hypothalamic AMPK signaling plays a key role in the metabolic control of puberty, acting via a repressive modulation of ARC Kiss1 neurons in conditions of negative energy balance.

GLP-1R Signaling Directly Activates Arcuate Nucleus Kisspeptin Action in Brain Slices but Does not Rescue Luteinizing Hormone Inhibition in Ovariectomized Mice During Negative Energy Balance

Kisspeptin (Kiss1) neurons in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC) are key components of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, as they regulate the basal pulsatile release of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). ARC Kiss1 action is dependent on energy status, and unmasking metabolic factors responsible for modulating ARC Kiss1 neurons is of great importance. One possible factor is glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), an anorexigenic neuropeptide produced by brainstem preproglucagon neurons. Because GLP fiber projections and the GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) are abundant in the ARC, we hypothesized that GLP-1R signaling could modulate ARC Kiss1 action. Using ovariectomized mice, we found that GLP-producing fibers come in close apposition with ARC Kiss1 neurons; these neurons also contain Glp1r mRNA. Electrophysiological recordings revealed that liraglutide (a long-acting GLP-1R agonist) increased action potential firing and caused a direct membrane depolarization of ARC Kiss1 cells in brain slices. We determined that brainstem preproglucagon mRNA is decreased after a 48-h fast in mice, a negative energy state in which ARC Kiss1 expression and downstream GnRH/luteinizing hormone (LH) release are potently suppressed. However, activation of GLP-1R signaling in fasted mice with liraglutide was not sufficient to prevent LH inhibition. Furthermore, chronic central infusions of the GLP-1R antagonist, exendin(9–39), in ad libitum–fed mice did not alter ARC Kiss1 mRNA or plasma LH. As a whole, these data identify a novel interaction of the GLP-1 system with ARC Kiss1 neurons but indicate that CNS GLP-1R signaling alone is not critical for the maintenance of LH during fasting or normal feeding.

Defining a novel leptin–melanocortin–kisspeptin pathway involved in the metabolic control of puberty

ObjectivePuberty is a key developmental phenomenon highly sensitive to metabolic modulation. Worrying trends of changes in the timing of puberty have been reported in humans. These might be linked to the escalating prevalence of childhood obesity and could have deleterious impacts on later (cardio-metabolic) health, but their underlying mechanisms remain unsolved. The neuropeptide α-MSH, made by POMC neurons, plays a key role in energy homeostasis by mediating the actions of leptin and likely participates in the control of reproduction. However, its role in the metabolic regulation of puberty and interplay with kisspeptin, an essential puberty-regulating neuropeptide encoded by Kiss1, remain largely unknown. We aim here to unveil the potential contribution of central α-MSH signaling in the metabolic control of puberty by addressing its role in mediating the pubertal effects of leptin and its potential interaction with kisspeptin. MethodsUsing wild type and genetically modified rodent models, we implemented pharmacological studies, expression analyses, electrophysiological recordings, and virogenetic approaches involving DREADD technology to selectively inhibit Kiss1 neurons, in order to interrogate the physiological role of a putative leptin→α-MSH→kisspeptin pathway in the metabolic control of puberty. ResultsStimulation of central α-MSH signaling robustly activated the reproductive axis in pubertal rats, whereas chronic inhibition of melanocortin receptors MC3/4R, delayed puberty, and prevented the permissive effect of leptin on puberty onset. Central blockade of MC3/4R or genetic elimination of kisspeptin receptors from POMC neurons did not affect kisspeptin effects. Conversely, congenital ablation of kisspeptin receptors or inducible, DREADD-mediated inhibition of arcuate nucleus (ARC) Kiss1 neurons resulted in markedly attenuated gonadotropic responses to MC3/4R activation. Furthermore, close appositions were observed between POMC fibers and ARC Kiss1 neurons while blockade of α-MSH signaling suppressed Kiss1 expression in the ARC of pubertal rats. ConclusionsOur physiological, virogenetic, and functional genomic studies document a novel α-MSH→kisspeptin→GnRH neuronal signaling pathway involved in transmitting the permissive effects of leptin on pubertal maturation, which is relevant for the metabolic (and, eventually, pharmacological) regulation of puberty onset.

17β-Estradiol increases persistent Na(+) current and excitability of AVPV/PeN Kiss1 neurons in female mice.

In vitro slice studies have revealed that there are significant differences in the spontaneous firing activity between anteroventral periventricular/periventricular preoptic nucleus (AVPV/PeN) and arcuate nucleus (ARC) kisspeptin (Kiss1) neurons in females. Although both populations express similar endogenous conductances, we have discovered that AVPV/PeN Kiss1 neurons express a subthreshold, persistent sodium current (INaP) that dramatically alters their firing activity. Based on whole-cell recording of Kiss1-Cre-green fluorescent protein (GFP) neurons, INaP was 4-fold greater in AVPV/PeN vs ARC Kiss1 neurons. An LH surge-producing dose of 17β-estradiol (E2) that increased Kiss1 mRNA expression in the AVPV/PeN, also augmented INaP in AVPV/PeN neurons by 2-fold. Because the activation threshold for INaP was close to the resting membrane potential (RMP) of AVPV/PeN Kiss1 neurons (-54 mV), it rendered them much more excitable and spontaneously active vs ARC Kiss1 neurons (RMP = -66 mV). Single-cell RT-PCR revealed that AVPV/PeN Kiss1 neurons expressed the requisite sodium channel α-subunit transcripts, NaV1.1, NaV1.2, and NaV1.6 and β subunits, β2 and β4. Importantly, NaV1.1α and -β2 transcripts in AVPV/PeN, but not ARC, were up-regulated 2- to 3-fold by a surge-producing dose of E2, similar to the transient calcium current channel subunit Cav3.1. The transient calcium current collaborates with INaP to generate burst firing, and selective blockade of INaP by riluzole significantly attenuated rebound burst firing and spontaneous activity. Therefore, INaP appears to play a prominent role in AVPV/PeN Kiss1 neurons to generate spontaneous, repetitive burst firing, which is required for the high-frequency-stimulated release of kisspeptin for exciting GnRH neurons and potentially generating the GnRH surge.

The integrated hypothalamic tachykinin-kisspeptin system as a central coordinator for reproduction.

Tachykinins are comprised of the family of related peptides, substance P (SP), neurokinin A (NKA), and neurokinin B (NKB). NKB has emerged as regulator of kisspeptin release in the arcuate nucleus (ARC), whereas the roles of SP and NKA in reproduction remain unknown. This work explores the roles of SP and NKA in the central regulation of GnRH release. First, central infusion of specific agonists for the receptors of SP (neurokinin receptor 1, NK1R), NKA (NK2R) and NKB (NK3R) each induced gonadotropin release in adult male and ovariectomized, estradiol-replaced female mice, which was absent in Kiss1r(-/-) mice, indicating a kisspeptin-dependent action. The NK2R agonist, however, decreased LH release in ovariectomized-sham replaced females, as documented for NK3R agonists but in contrast to the NK1R agonist, which further increased LH release. Second, Tac1 (encoding SP and NKA) expression in the ARC and ventromedial nucleus was inhibited by circulating estradiol but did not colocalize with Kiss1 mRNA. Third, about half of isolated ARC Kiss1 neurons expressed Tacr1 (NK1R) and 100% Tacr3 (NK3R); for anteroventral-periventricular Kiss1 neurons and GnRH neurons, approximately one-fourth expressed Tacr1 and one-tenth Tacr3; Tacr2 (NK2R) expression was absent in all cases. Overall, these results identify a potent regulation of gonadotropin release by the SP/NK1R and NKA/NK2R systems in the presence of kisspeptin-Kiss1r signaling, indicating that they may, along with NKB/NK3R, control GnRH release, at least in part through actions on Kiss1 neurons.

Estradiol modulates Kiss1 neuronal response to ghrelin

Ghrelin is a metabolic signal regulating energy homeostasis. Circulating ghrelin levels rise during starvation and fall after a meal, and therefore, ghrelin may function as a signal of negative energy balance. Ghrelin may also act as a modulator of reproductive physiology, as acute ghrelin administration suppresses gonadotropin secretion and inhibits the neuroendocrine reproductive axis. Interestingly, ghrelin's effect in female metabolism varies according to the estrogen milieu predicting an interaction between ghrelin and estrogens, likely at the hypothalamic level. Here, we show that ghrelin receptor (GHSR) and estrogen receptor-α (ERα) are coexpressed in several hypothalamic sites. Higher levels of circulating estradiol increased the expression of GHSR mRNA and the coexpression of GHSR mRNA and ERα selectively in the arcuate nucleus (ARC). Subsets of preoptic and ARC Kiss1 neurons coexpressed GHSR. Increased colocalization was observed in ARC Kiss1 neurons of ovariectomized estradiol-treated (OVX + E₂; 80%) compared with ovariectomized oil-treated (OVX; 25%) mice. Acute actions of ghrelin on ARC Kiss1 neurons were also modulated by estradiol; 75 and 22% of Kiss1 neurons of OVX + E₂ and OVX mice, respectively, depolarized in response to ghrelin. Our findings indicate that ghrelin and estradiol may interact in several hypothalamic sites. In the ARC, high levels of E₂ increase GHSR mRNA expression, modifying the colocalization rate with ERα and Kiss1 and the proportion of Kiss1 neurons acutely responding to ghrelin. Our findings indicate that E₂ alters the responsiveness of kisspeptin neurons to metabolic signals, potentially acting as a critical player in the metabolic control of the reproductive physiology.

Differential Regulation of Kiss1 Expression by Melatonin and Gonadal Hormones in Male and Female Syrian Hamsters

In seasonal breeders, reproduction is synchronized to seasons by day length via the pineal hormone melatonin. Recently, we have demonstrated that Kiss1, a key activator of the reproductive function, is down-regulated in sexually inactive hamsters maintained in inhibitory short days (SDs). In rodents, Kiss1 is expressed in the anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPV) and in the arcuate nucleus (ARC). Because both the duration of the nocturnal peak of melatonin and circulating sex steroid levels vary with photoperiod, the aim of this study was to determine whether melatonin and sex steroids differentially regulate Kiss1 expression in the ARC and the AVPV. Kiss1 expression was examined by in situ hybridization in both male and female hamsters kept in various experimental conditions, and we observed that 1) SD exposure markedly reduced Kiss1 expression in the ARC and AVPV of male and female hamsters as compared to LD animals, 2) sex steroid treatment in SD-adapted male and female hamsters increased the number of Kiss1 neurons in the AVPV but decreased it in the ARC, 3) melatonin administration to LD-adapted hamsters decreased Kiss1 mRNA level in both the AVPV and the ARC in intact animals, whereas in castrated hamsters, melatonin rapidly inhibited Kiss1 expression in the ARC but not in the AVPV, and 4) pinealectomy of male or female SD-adapted hamsters increased the number of Kiss1 neurons in the ARC but not in the AVPV. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that Kiss1 expression in the Syrian hamster hypothalamus is down-regulated in SD via different mechanisms. In the ARC, melatonin inhibits Kiss1 via a direct effect on the hypothalamus, and this effect is probably sex steroid dependent, whereas in the AVPV, the decrease in Kiss1 expression appears to be secondary to the melatonin-driven reduction of sex steroid levels. Taken together, our data support the hypothesis that ARC Kiss1 neurons mediate melatonin effects on the gonadotropic axis of the Syrian hamster.