Architectural Heritage Research Articles

Experimental and numerical study on fire development process and fire risk assessment of historic timber lounge bridges

AbstractHistoric timber lounge bridges are precious architectural heritages. But they are sensitive to fire. In order to obtain an adequate understanding of the fire vulnerability of historical timber lounge bridges for their better conservation, this paper proposes a framework based on experiment and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis. Dengyun Bridge, a typical timber lounge bridge with cantilever beams, was chosen to carry out study on the fire development process and fire risk assessment. Firstly, the structural form and fire loads of the bridge were obtained by conducting on-site survey, and then a complex pyrolysis model of ancient wood was established in the Fire Dynamic Simulator (FDS) according to the pyrolysis characteristic of the ancient wood replaced from the bridge during its renovation. Secondly, the fire development process in Dengyun Bridge was simulated and four crucial fire events were defined. Finally, the comprehensive fire risk index for the Dengyun Bridge under those fire events was calculated by applying the Analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and Entropy method, and some mitigation and prevention strategies were discussed accordingly. The obtained results indicated that the flashover point was a boundary of fire development. After the flashover, the comprehensive fire risk index increased and reached its peak value rapidly. In the 1084 s (peak heat release rate), the comprehensive fire risk index was about 1.7 times of that in 847 s (flashover point). Mitigation strategies, such as the flame-retardant treatment and water-mist extinguishing system, were proved to be effective to retard the developed fire. The results of this study can provide a scientific basis for fire risk assessment and conservation of inherited timber lounge bridges.

Collision of tradition and visual perception: aesthetic evaluation and conservation intent in adapting traditional Chinese gates within architectural heritage

ABSTRACT The sustainable conservation of architectural heritage has attracted significant attention, especially with the rapid development of heritage tourism. Adaptation is a compromise to allow heritage to meet modern development demands; however, unregulated adaptations pose significant risks to sustainable conservation. This study involved 60 participants in a quasi-experimental investigation, using eye-tracking technology combined with evaluation questionnaires. The aim was to explore how material, ornament, and generational age differences impact aesthetic evaluation, visual attention, and conservation intention toward traditional Chinese architectural gates. The results show a general preference for traditional materials (wood) and intricate ornament (Ice Crack), with participants displaying a stronger conservation intention toward these elements. Notably, generational differences were evident, with older participants showing longer visual engagement with architectural heritage design elements. This study extends aesthetic response theory into the heritage domain, emphasizing material authenticity and design complexity in shaping conservation attitudes. It offers valuable insights for heritage adaptation strategies, emphasizing the need to balance historical authenticity with aesthetic appeal to enhance public engagement.

Cultural geography meets architectural typology: a mixed-methods study of traditional Bayu dwellings in Southwestern China

ABSTRACT Traditional Bayu dwellings in China’s mountainous regions embody a rich yet underexplored architectural heritage, characterized by unique cultural and regional attributes. This study addresses the gap by investigating the architectural typologies, spatial distribution, and cultural influences of these dwellings. Employing a mixed-methods approach within the framework of cultural geography, the research integrates qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Data collection was conducted in three phases: (1) field surveys and documentation of 67 heritage-listed dwellings and 164 traditional villages; (2) collection of geographic data using GIS tools, including Digital Elevation Model (DEM) analysis; and (3) comprehensive literature review of historical and cultural records. Data analysis utilized statistical methods, including second-order cluster analysis, and spatial analysis with ArcGIS. The findings identify four primary dwelling types and delineate four architectural cultural zones shaped by geographical segregation, economic exchanges, and ethnic interactions. This study contributes to a broader understanding of the architectural culture and regional characteristics of the Bayu region, offering valuable insights for cultural heritage preservation and informing sustainable development strategies.

Automatic reconstruction of semantic façade model of architectural heritage

AbstractFaçade elements, such as windows, doors, balconies, sculptures, and totems, in architectural heritage images with incomplete structures should be automatically reconstructed for applications in 3D analysis, 3D modeling, virtual tourism, city planning, and the protection and reconstruction of architectural heritage. This study segments façade elements of architectural heritage semantically using YOLOv9. A parameterized expression for the semantic façade model is designed. In addition, the façade layer graph (FLG) and element layer graph (ELG) algorithms are developed based on topological, geometric, and structural constraints to automatically reconstruct the semantic façade model for architectural heritages. The results showed that the average precision (AP) and mean intersection over union (MIoU) achieved using YOLOv9 + FLG-ELG are 86.91% and 85.63%, respectively, on the dataset concerning façade elements of architectural heritages. The AP values obtained from the proposed method are 98.5% on the ECP2011 dataset and 95.3% on the Graz2012 dataset. The YOLOv9 + FLG-ELG method automatically reconstructs regular, irregular, and complex façade layouts with high accuracy and robustness.

The Mosque of the Blessed Tree in Safawi, Jordan

The Mosque of the Blessed Tree in Mafraq, Jordan represents a revival of Islamic architectural heritage. Situated near an ancient terebinth tree where the Prophet Muhammad is believed to have rested, the mosque was erected according to traditional building techniques and Islamic principles. The design, led by MAS Design Office, involved careful integration of local materials along with load-bearing structures. Despite challenges, including limited time and budget constraints, the project was completed in six months. The mosque's design emphasizes simplicity and balance, with features such as a central dome, shallow domes in prayer halls, and pinnacles echoing traditional minarets. The project also involved training local craftsmen in complex stonemasonry techniques.

Evaluating the stability of architectural heritage from the perspective of InSAR: a practical study on Jianchuan Ancient Town

AbstractThe increase in human activities and natural degradation often leads to tilting, collapsing, and other forms of deterioration in architectural heritage, posing significant threats to its safety. Therefore, timely detection of abnormal deformation signals in buildings is essential for the protection of architectural heritage. Spaceborne synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR) can detect slight displacements over large areas. However, relying solely on annual mean velocity maps derived from InSAR may not accurately assess the stability of ancient buildings. In this study, we developed a framework that evaluates the stability of individual buildings by integrating the InSAR displacements with building footprints. Vertical and rotational deformations, along with the temporal evolution of these deformations, are combined to generate the results for building stability assessment. We used 74 TerraSAR-X images captured from August 2017 to November 2019 to evaluate the stability of Jianchuan Ancient Town, a renowned National Historical and Cultural City in China. The displacement result suggests that the majority of Jianchuan Ancient Town remains stable, with over 93% of coherent points (CTs) displaying displacement velocities ranging from −5 to 5 mm/yr. Out of the 1,891 buildings in Jianchuan Ancient Town, 1404 are considered stable, 352 are of moderate stability, and 12 are deemed unstable. This study showed the potential of InSAR applications in assessing the stability of architectural heritages, emphasizing its crucial role in heritage preservation and management.

Investigating the collective memory of traditional markets in Downtown Amman

PurposeThe aim of this study is to investigate the collective memory of urban cultural heritage sites for selected traditional markets in Down town Amman city – Jordan. The study also introduces the concepts urban artifacts and architectural archetypes as an urban/architectural framework for investigating the collective memory of traditional markets.Design/methodology/approachThe study followed a qualitative research methodology with a (bottom-up) approach focusing on narrative and structured interviews. The interviews were conducted with 20 participants in each market. This was in addition to archival data collection and site observations.FindingsThe study revealed that the users of the two markets do have a shared collective memory manifested in multiple forms of cultural expressions. It also revealed the significant role of collective memory in fostering recognition of the urban and cultural significance of the two markets in the form of architectural archetypes and urban artifacts.Research limitations/implicationsThe study contributes in further developing the understanding of architectural heritage in the context of collective memory, and understanding architectural heritage in the context of the city through the concept of urban artifacts.Practical implicationsThe study demonstrates that preservation of collective memory can influence people’s attitudes and behaviors as they develop a collective responsibility toward the cultural heritage site.Originality/valueThis is the first focused study to introduce the traditional markets of Downtown Amman within the theoretical framework of collective memory. The study also introduces a new scientific investigation of urban cultural heritage in the context of urban artifacts.

Speculative Heritage: Architectural Imagination as a Gateway to Alternative Futures for Iranians at Home and in the Diaspora

ABSTRACT This article focuses on the Azadi Tower, a prominent gate structure in Tehran, to discuss how an authoritarian monument has the potential to become a shared space of public discourse, both physically and visually. In so doing, it opens up a discussion of the construction of spatial imaginaries as a category of cultural heritage, specifically in geographies of conflict. Initially named Shahyad, the tower and the square around it were built in 1971 as a monument to the Shah. Despite the controversial genesis of the structure, it was given new meanings after the 1979 revolution and renamed Azadi (freedom) Tower. This article considers the centrality of the structure in the visual materials expressing dissent in the recent years in Iran and across the Iranian diaspora, and addresses the various stages of physical and visual re-invention of the structure since the 1979 revolution to comprehend its role as a speculative solidarity monument in contemporary Iran. In this sense, architectural heritage opens up new possibilities not just through its lived experiences, but also its yet-to-be-lived subjective imaginaries.

An innovative approach to post-occupancy evaluation of architectural heritages in the Peking-Mukden railway

AbstractThe architectural heritages of the Peking-Mukden Railway has witnessed the industrialization of China. When it no longer serves its original function, finding a new way for reuse becomes a trend. It requires feedback from reused cases to guide decision-making. This article aims to propose an approach to post-occupancy evaluation of architectural heritages in the Peking-Mukden Railway and apply it to real cases for analysis. The evaluation indicator system used here consists of a hierarchical structure, evaluation indicators, and interpretation indicators. Cosine similarity, entropy weight method, and precedence chart method are utilized to determine final weights. The GRA-TOPSIS method is utilized to identify reuse cases that require additional optimization. The conclusions are as follows: 1. The cosine similarity can be introduced to neutralize individual preferences. The entropy weight method can be used to neutralize subjective factors. 2. Based on the analysis of the sensitivity levels, indicators that need to be improved first can be identified. Priority should be given to spatial accessibility and cultural transmission when making adjustments with limited resources. 3. The GRA-TOPSIS evaluation method can be used to rank and find reuse cases that need further optimization.

A Comprehensive Review of Multimodal XR Applications, Risks, and Ethical Challenges in the Metaverse

This scoping review examines the broad applications, risks, and ethical challenges associated with Extended Reality (XR) technologies, including Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and Mixed Reality (MR), within the context of Metaverse. XR is revolutionizing fields such as immersive learning in education, medical and professional training, neuropsychological assessment, therapeutic interventions, arts, entertainment, retail, e-commerce, remote work, sports, architecture, urban planning, and cultural heritage preservation. The integration of multimodal technologies—haptics, eye-, face-, and body tracking, and brain–computer interfaces—enhances user engagement and interactivity, playing a key role in shaping the immersive experiences in the Metaverse. However, XR’s expansion raises serious concerns, including data privacy risks, cybersecurity vulnerabilities, cybersickness, addiction, dissociation, harassment, bullying, and misinformation. These psychological, social, and security challenges are further complicated by intense advertising, manipulation of public opinion, and social inequality, which could disproportionately affect vulnerable individuals and social groups. This review emphasizes the urgent need for robust ethical frameworks and regulatory guidelines to address these risks while promoting equitable access, privacy, autonomy, and mental well-being. As XR technologies increasingly integrate with artificial intelligence, responsible governance is essential to ensure the safe and beneficial development of the Metaverse and the broader application of XR in enhancing human development.

Cultural Assessment as the Meeting Point in the Dialogue Between Heritage Studies and Architectural Practice—The Adaptive Reuse of Trinity College, Coimbra (Portugal)

More than a century after Riegl took the first steps in the theory of value that characterised the 20th century, conservation is now being challenged from the perspective of understanding heritage intervention projects. Critical transformation of heritage, based on knowledge, modifies the characteristics of what is of value, its significance and its materiality. This work process deals with questions related to citizens’ perceptions, where consensus is sought to agree on what has value in a heritage context and how intervention projects affect this consideration. This article represents a revision of heritage methodology insofar as it establishes a contemporary dialogue between architectural practice and heritage studies through the identification and management of cultural values. It takes as a case study the Trinity College in Coimbra, by Aires Mateus. This work is framed within the declaration of the University of Coimbra as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This methodology can be extrapolated to other case studies, providing a necessary framework for understanding design action in different heritage contexts. This research attempts to equate the heritage asset’s initial values with those generated or activated after the intervention, highlighting the recognition of these values as a key objective of heritage studies and design action.

Scan-to-BIM Process and Architectural Conservation: Towards an Effective Tool for the Thematic Mapping of Decay and Alteration Phenomena

Ancient monumental complexes need continuous analysis and monitoring operations to preserve a good conservation status. For this reason, the analysis of decay and alteration phenomena represents one of the main activities for their preservation. At the same time, the diffusion of Heritage Building Information Modelling (HBIM) methodology opens new scenarios for the management of Architectural Heritage. The paper describes the workflow based on a Scan-to-BIM approach for the generation of a decay map in an HBIM model. The workflow was applied to a significant case study, the church of “Santa Maria della Grotta” in Marsala (Italy). This church, partially excavated in a sandstone bank, is part of a larger heritage site consisting of a series of hypogea and a Punic necropolis dating back more than a thousand years. The Scan-to-BIM process, relying on an integrated survey combining mobile laser scanning and photogrammetric technologies, enabled the achievement of a complete 3D parametric model of the monument and, altogether, a detailed decay map in a BIM environment. The mapping process focused on the production of thematic maps of perimetral walls according to an abacus of decays implemented in a BIM system, useful for the analysis and conservation of the church. The work demonstrates how the Scan-to-BIM process is an efficient approach for 3D data collection and how it could facilitate the identification and mapping of pathogenic phenomena. Furthermore, the inclusion of this kind of information in the BIM model represents an effective tool for the maintenance and restoration of built heritage.

The imaginaries of the city of Norilsk, from the Soviet industrial utopia to the contemporary nickel legend

Norilsk is a polar city in Russia, located to the South of the Taimyr Peninsula in the Arctic Circle. The city’s surroundings are rich in unique deposits of polymetallic ores, and life in the city is organised around metal extraction. This is a reason why Norilsk is an interesting object for analysis of the social representation of the city’s image. Social representation is a fairly new socio-philosophical concept. By the word ‘representation’ we mean perceptions that are formed on the basis of reality. In the case of Norilsk, it is the result of all perceptions of the city and its environment. The study is based on contemporary documentary films, geographical, historical and journalistic documents. The analysis of perceptions of Norilsk allows us to understand the reasons for ideological debates around the history of Russia, such as discussions about memorials to victims of political repressions. Statements about Norilsk are contradictory. Negative statements are related to negative perceptions of the city, while positive statements are related to the residents’ love for their city. The analysis of representations related to the architecture of Norilsk allows us to identify gaps in the official discourse about the foundation of the city and explore its historical background. The study has revealed that the Soviet architectural heritage is well-preserved and documented, while statements about buildings associated with the Gulag are relegated to a marginalised space. Consideration of external and local representations of Norilsk allows us to understand the process of rewriting the history of the city.

A Study on the Visual Perception of Cultural Value Characteristics of Traditional Southern Fujian Architecture Based on Eye Tracking

The traditional Southern Fujian architecture serves as a reflection of the region’s deeply rooted cultural values. However, research on the architectural and cultural heritage of Southern Fujian remains scarce. Accordingly, this study employs eye-tracking technology to experiment with 20 individuals with local cultural backgrounds and 20 without it to investigate the differences in the perception of the architectural heritage of Southern Fujian by individuals with disparate cultural backgrounds. The findings indicate that distinct groups evince disparate visual perceptions of the architectural and cultural heritage of Southern Fujian. The participants’ attention was divided into two categories: patterns and shapes and calligraphy and text. Non-locals were primarily drawn to patterns and shapes, whereas locals demonstrated a greater interest in the calligraphy and text category. The extraction of cultural information from calligraphic characters requires greater understanding and more time spent within the culture. Knowledge of local cultural backgrounds is helpful to better understand such information. This highlights the potential impact of Southern Fujian architecture on the local population. These findings provide a compelling rationale for the incorporation of multicultural elements in contemporary architectural design while also advocating for the preservation and advancement of Southern Fujian architectural heritage.

The emerging middle ground: A case study of vernacular Hakka settlements in the peri-urban areas of southern China through an architectural heritage analysis

Rapid urban expansion is transforming rural areas globally, prompting scholars to challenge the traditional urban-rural dichotomy and focus on transitional zones such as the rural-urban fringe and peri-urban areas. This article documents the evolution of architectural morphology in traditional Hakka settlements in peri-urban areas of southern China and coins the hybrid architectural landscape combined with urban and rural characteristics in these ambiguous territories as the “Middle Ground.” Fieldwork was conducted in four Hakka villages in Heyuan, northeast Guangdong, China, between 2021 and 2023. An explorative case study was employed to analyze the architectural morphology of the Middle Ground by mapping village fabric, dwellings, and street markets through aerial photography. A participatory perspective was also incorporated, involving observation, interviews, and documentation of the daily life of local villagers. This research examines how authority and mobility have shaped the Middle Ground, potentially leading to a state of “placelessness,” and explores the role of rural heritage in this context. This research contributes to the broader discourse on peri-urban areas by offering an architectural heritage atlas as an addition to existing research.

Legislative Frameworks of Architectural Heritage Conservation Acts: A Comparative Study across Nations

Legislative Frameworks of Architectural Heritage Conservation Acts: A Comparative Study across Nations

The digital preservation of the Padley Mill as both heritage and knowledge

Architecture is a form of tacit knowledge in which ideas can be learnt from the past, and that body of tacit knowledge can be recorded in order to give relevant guidance to today's productions. This methodological paper presents a timely reflection that seeks to document the digitisation of Padley Mill in the Grindleford Village of the U.K., which was the key design output and built heritage of the late British academic and architect Peter Blundell Jones. The paper starts with a brief review on the current developments on digital reality capture methods in architectural heritage studies, followed by the Padley Mill digital preservation case study via its three work stages utilising LiDAR data and photogrammetry data. It closes with a humanities echo after the historian-designer on the layering and storytelling of the historic environment. The distinction of this paper is it combines and enhances the digital visualisation and storytelling of endangered architectural heritage through 3D LiDAR scanning and digital photogrammetry, promoting further methodological debates in the digital preservation of architectural heritage.

The making of a dissonant heritage: the Foro Italico in Rome

ABSTRACT Italy’s long and stratified history offers abundant heritage resources, with Rome serving as a showcase for the architectural embodiment of political and ideological changes over time. Among these periods, the Fascist regime under Benito Mussolini initiated extensive urban and architectural renewal projects, notably exemplified by the Foro Italico, a monumental sports complex that is still actively used. The present contribution retraces the elements constituting Fascist architectural heritage in Italy and explores how Italian people comprehend and interpret the dissonant heritage site of the Foro Italico. Departing from previous approaches, this research employs a conservation perspective, exploring, among others, architectural and socio-cultural values associated with the complex. By analysing the motives underlying its unceasing use, this study seeks to understand why citizens continue to create new experiences and memories at the site despite its contentious ideological symbolism, without undergoing modern damnatio memoriae or de-commemoration processes, thus contributing to ongoing debates on heritage management and the politics of memory.

Application and renovation evaluation of Dalian's industrial architectural heritage based on AHP and AIGC.

This paper takes the example of industrial architectural heritage in Dalian to explore design scheme generation methods based on generative artificial intelligence (AIGC). The study compares the design effects of three different tools using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). It first establishes the key indicator weights for the renovation of industrial architectural heritage, with the criterion layer weights as follows: building renovation 0.230, environmental landscape 0.223, economic benefits 0.190, and socio-cultural value 0.356. Among the goal layer weights, the highest weight is for the improvement of living quality at 0.129, followed by resident satisfaction at 0.096, and educational and display functions at 0.088, while the lowest is for renovation costs at only 0.035. The design schemes are generated using Stable Diffusion, Mid Journey, and Adobe Firefly tools, and evaluated using a weighted scoring method. The results show that Stable Diffusion excels in overall image control, Mid Journey demonstrates strong artistic effects, while Adobe Firefly stands out in generation efficiency and ease of use. In the overall score, Stable Diffusion leads the other two tools with scores of 6.1 and 6.3, respectively. Compared to traditional design processes, these tools significantly shorten the design workflow and cycle, improving design quality and efficiency while also providing rich creative inspiration. Overall, although current generative artificial intelligence tools still have limitations in understanding human emotions and cultural differences, with continuous technological iteration, this method is expected to play a larger role in the design field, offering more innovative solutions for the renovation of industrial architectural heritage.

The Legacy of Lithuanian Architect Stasys Kudokas in the United States of America: Sacred Architecture Based on Hope and Expectations

Abstract Many Lithuanian intellectuals fled from the occupied Lithuania during the Second World War and after it, including the most famous architects who created the architectural language of interwar Kaunas Modernism. After escaping from the war-torn country to the United States of America, they resumed their professional pursuits while living in exile. Stasys Kudokas – one of the most prominent and productive architects in the interwar Lithuania – also pursued his carreer while living in exile. Yet his architectural heritage in the United States of America is still an under-researched topic. The Lithuanian diaspora press remains one of the most comprehensive sources exploring Kudokas’ professional path in the United States of America. By using descriptive and comparative methods, this study aims to examine the most important projects by Kudokas for the Lithuanian diaspora and the related expectations of Lithuanian communities, reflected in the diaspora press. This study will reveal that the reflection of Lithuanianness in the architecture designed for the Lithuanian community was the most important criterion for evaluating Kudokas’ legacy in the exile press.