Archaeometric Analyses Research Articles

Almost the same, but not quite: an analysis of Late Bronze Age swords in the Balearic Islands

In the present work we carry out a study of all the Late Bronze Age swords recorded in the Balearic Islands. They represent a set of local practices and traditions alongside foreign ideas and archetypes. To carry out the study, we employ a strategy that joins technological and archaeometric analyses with approaches that consider isotopes and typologies. Of note among the data considered is the importance of metal coming from deposits in Linares, followed by Menorca and Mallorca, and finally, more marginally, Sardinia. A technological analysis of the manufacturing processes provides evidence, in a local context, of the use of the lost-wax casting technique, compound objects, and ternary bronzes, all technologies foreign to the Balearic Islands. Finally, we reflect on the local practices in which these objects were embroiled. All of this allows us to provide an in-depth examination of the interaction networks as well as the changes that took place in local metallurgical practices as the result of the circulation of ideas and knowledge.

What jewelry did people wear in the Middle Byzantine period (10th-12th C. CE) in the Peloponnese? A technological and analytical case study

The present paper presents the preliminary results of the archaeometric analysis of a Middle Byzantine jewelry assemblage made of non-precious metals from the ancient site of Pallantion, near Tripoli (Peloponnese, Greece). The assemblage under examination consists of 26 artifacts, including earrings, finger rings and buckles. Macroscopic observations and optical microscopy were used to examine the manufacturing technology of the artifacts, with a particular focus on the manufacturing technology of wires. The proposed methodology combined a Handheld X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (HH-XRF) and a Micro X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (μ-XRF) to group the alloys used in the manufacture of the jewelry, despite the presence of corrosion. This methodology indicated that the majority of the artifacts was made of bronze, leaded or not, and gunmetal. Moreover, a quantification criterion was used to determine the state of preservation of the surface of the jewelry. Overall, the present study highlights the manufacturing technology of jewelry of the Middle Byzantine period and the tendency to imitate silver jewelry with lower-cost materials.

Advanced Ancient Steelmaking Across the Arctic European Landscape

Abstract This article presents results that seriously challenge conventional frameworks regarding the time, course, and cultural context of the introduction of iron and steel in Europe, in turn central metals in the narrative of civilization development. From focusing on 2,000-year-old finds from 42 different sites across the national borders of present-day northernmost Norway, Finland, and Sweden, our study reveals advanced iron and steel production contemporaneous with Roman steel production within the hitherto unthinkable cultural context of hunter-gatherers. By employing archaeometric analyses alongside a lens that considers the Arctic climate and landscape, long-standing inadequate interpretative frameworks are challenged and we manage to shed novel light on the metallurgical practices and skills of the ancient Arctic hunter-gatherers. By examining local conditions, the research specifically reveals adaptation strategies and previously underexplored social and organizational aspects of early ironmaking. The implications of these findings are profound, urging historians and archaeologists to adopt similar methods and perspectives to potentially uncover additional “unthinkable” locations/regions or contexts with advanced and early metalworking.

The sword from Vlčí Pole

Finds of early medieval Schlingen-type swords are mostly concentrated in present-day southern Germany, where they are known from a number of graves dating to the end of the late Merovingian period. On the contrary, these swords are completely absent in contexts of the early Carolingian and Great Moravian periods. This paper presents a new find of Schlingen-type sword from Vlčí Pole in the northeastern part of Central Bohemia and its archaeometric analysis. We consider the sword from Vlčí Pole to be the only unambiguous find of a fully preserved long-bladed weapon of the late 7th to 8th century in Bohemia. As it is one of the few late Merovingian swords to have been examined using X-ray computed tomography and metallography, it also contributes to a general understanding of phenomena such as the development of the use of pattern-welded marks and blades with cutting edges of hardened steel.

Detecting Recent Research Trends and Applications of Some Molecular Archaeometric Analysis Techniques: A Review

Detecting Recent Research Trends and Applications of Some Molecular Archaeometric Analysis Techniques: A Review

ARCHAEOMETRIC analysis of pigments from archaeological contexts in the upper DELTA of the PARANÁ river (ARGENTINA)

AbstractThis research delves into ancient pigment practices among the Goya‐Malabrigo societies in the Upper Delta of the Paraná River during the Late Holocene. Utilising Raman microspectroscopy and X‐ray diffraction, we analysed 33 samples from six archaeological sites and four natural outcrops. Our discoveries uncovered hematite in red pigments across diverse materials (potsherds, shells, human bones, and sediments), anatase adorning ceramics with whitish tones, and charcoal creating darker shades. These findings not only contribute to the understanding of the mineral composition of ancient colours used by Indigenous people in domestic and funerary contexts but also set the first stage for forthcoming provenance research, integrating multiple archaeometric techniques to unravel the origins of these compelling pigments.

Archaeometric analysis of pottery sherds from Barveh Tepe: Insights into Early Bronze Age pottery‐making techniques and firing temperatures

AbstractBarveh Tepe, an archaeological site from the Early Bronze Age in the Zagros Mountains of Iran, was the focus of an archaeometric analysis in this study. The aim was to evaluate the firing temperature of excavated pottery sherds from Barveh Tepe and to gain insights into the pottery‐making techniques employed. A range of analytical methods, including optical microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy (EDS), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) and X‐ray diffraction (XRD), was utilized to characterize the pottery sherds. The results revealed the utilization of two primary types of raw clays: calcite‐rich (calcareous) and calcite‐poor (non‐calcareous). The presence of calcite in calcareous pottery samples was confirmed, with the calcareous pottery showing a low CO3−2 vibrational band, indicating a low firing temperature. Through the integration of SEM images, FTIR spectra, TGA curve and XRD pattern results, the estimated firing temperature range for Barveh Tepe pottery was determined to be between 600 and 1100°C. These findings provide new insights into the pottery‐making practices of the Early Bronze Age and shed light on the technological advancements of the period.

A comprehensive and innovative chemometric approach: Archaeometric analysis of the sherds from the Neolithic Period to the Chalcolithic and early Bronze Age with the full deployment of FTIR's molecular spectroscopic capabilities

In this study, the mineralogical composition of 284 sherds obtained from the sites of Yeşilova Höyük and Yassıtepe Höyük, two of the oldest settlements in Western Anatolia, and corresponding to a wide period starting from the Neolithic period to the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age (EBA), was studied by attenuated total reflectance (ATR) Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. FTIR data was used to classify the sherds and state their firing conditions as a result of determining their mineralogical composition using principal component analysis (PCA), multivariate curve resolution (MCR), and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). According to the PCA results, the second-order derivative FTIR spectrum with 19 smoothing points in the range of 1300–400 cm−1 was determined to be the most successful model in classifying sherds. As a result of MCR, which allows comparison of standard minerals obtained within the scope of the study, it was determined that kaolinite, illite, chlorite, and some feldspar types were dominant in the sherds. According to HCA analysis, all sherds except five of them exhibited a similar mineralogical structure. According to the derivative spectra, it was seen that the sherds had a composition consisting of kaolinite, illite, hematite, chlorite, and some feldspar types at different rates. Upon examining the data, it becomes evident that the sherds are composed of nearly identical minerals and might have been fired in an oxidizing atmosphere. Even while 279 sherds had many mineralogical traits, N-061, EB-030, N-043, C-068, and N-059 were found to have distinct proportions of comparable minerals, including more kaolinite, illite, calcite, and chlorite. Regarding color, additives, and the amount of ceramic pastes present, these five sherds differ from the others. This suggests that there might have been attempts at manufacture or pots brought in from outside the Yeşilova Höyük-Yassıtepe Höyük sites. The results provided from the derivative spectra showed that all sherds except five of them have been fired at about at temperatures slightly above 450–500 °C due to their relatively low kaolinite character, but below 800 °C because diopside and similar high-temperature minerals could not be detected. The five sherds may have been fired at a temperature of around 450–500 °C due to the presence of a high character of kaolinite, illite, and chlorite. It was understood that the residents of the sites of Yeşilova Höyük and Yassıtepe Höyük produced their ceramics using the same raw materials and the same production methods from the Neolithic period to EBA thanks to FTIR and chemometrics, which are very good tools for analyzing large numbers of sherds with low cost and fast analysis time.

Göktepe Marble Identification in the Hadrian Portrait of Los Torrejones (Yecla, Murcia) and some Considerations on the Presence of this Marble in Hispania

This work characterises the high-quality white marble used in the bust of Emperor Hadrian found in the Roman villa of Los Torrejones (Yecla, Murcia). The analytical results, compared with the databases pertaining to Hispanic and Mediterranean quarry marbles, reveal its source in the quarries of Göktepe, in Muğla province, Western Turkey. The historical implications of the presence in the villa of an imperial portrait of such quality are discussed. The results also emphasise the importance of undertaking future complete archaeometric analysis of marble materials used in the sculptures of Hispania, only way to certify the provenance of the stone and, in this case, to better understand the distribution reached by the varieties of Göktepe marble in the Iberian Peninsula.

Continuity and Innovation in Pottery Technology: The Karst Region (North-East Italy) from Neolithic to Early Bronze Age

This paper explores the development of pottery technology in the Trieste Karst region (North-East Italy) from the Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age (EBA). It also seeks to identify cultural links with other areas by examining potentially imported vessels. Archaeometric analyses (X-ray diffraction and optical microscopy) reveal significant differences between Neolithic ceramics (Danilo–Vlaška Group) and the majority of Late Copper Age (LCA)/Early Bronze Age (EBA) pottery (primarily associated with the Ljubljana Culture and a few with the Cetina Culture). Neolithic pottery displays consistent characteristics across all vessel types, including coarse grain, prevalent sparry calcite temper, and the absence of grog. In contrast, most LCA and EBA vessels exhibit distinct features such as very fine-grained paste, no sparry calcite, notable use of grog temper, higher quartz, muscovite, and flint content. Notably, from a technological perspective, the analyzed Cetina vessels bear a strong resemblance to the majority of LCA ceramics. The differences between Neolithic and LCA/EBA vessels clearly suggest the use of new raw materials, recipes, and techniques, likely reflecting changes in cultural and social contexts and potential connections with the core area of the Ljubljana Culture.

Archaeological and Archaeometric Insights into a Roman Wall Painting Assemblage from the Blanes Dump (Mérida)

In this paper we describe the archaeological and archaeometric analysis of a Third Pompeian Style assemblage from the Blanes dump in Mérida (Spain). Based on the pottery context, the material would have been part of the decoration of a public or private space remodelled towards the end of the 1st century AD. Several samples from to the middle area of the assemblage, including panels, inter-panels and a frieze, were selected and studied using X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Raman, gas chromatography and petrographic analysis. The results revealed the use of hematite, cinnabar, minium and goethite in different panels, as well as goethite, Egyptian blue, calcite, glauconite and carbon for the decorative motifs. They allowed us to define the painting techniques used and how they have affected the degradation of the pigments.

Exploring Durrës between East and West: discovery of a protostonepaste—archaeological context and archaeometric analysis

This research delves into the investigation of a ceramic sample discovered in the southern sector of the Durrës Amphitheatre, with a primary focus on comprehending its composition, origin, and cultural importance. The sample reveals similarities with protostonepaste through meticulous chemical analysis, yet a more profound correlation with protostonepaste concerning normative composition. Despite its porcelain-like external appearance, the ceramic demonstrates chemical consistency with a finely balanced amalgamation of crushed kaolinised leucogranite, frits, and talc, accounting for a dominant proportion of 60% compared to the other constituents. Our findings suggest that the ceramic traces its origin to Iran, specifically the Kashan and Qamsar areas, dating back to the twelfth century. The geological attributes of the region have significantly influenced the choice of raw materials for producing high-temperature ceramics. Additionally, the presence of arsenic and cobalt in the glaze further corroborates its Iranian provenance. This discovery significantly accentuates Durrës' pivotal role as a crucial conduit for East–West interactions, including its historical ties with Venice. Trade links between Durrës and Syrian–Iranian area were established as early as the tenth century. Furthermore, the analysed ceramic fragment was unearthed within a layer corresponding to a period of abandonment within the productive context. This period dates to the late twelfth century—early thirteenth century. These findings offer compelling evidence of this urban sector's continued commercial and economic significance throughout the central centuries of the Middle Ages.

Tackling early medieval circulation of glazed ware in Sharq al-Andalus using a multidisciplinary approach: El Tolmo de Minateda (Spain)

This paper offers an analysis of a group of glazed ceramics that comes from El Tolmo de Minateda site and have been dated in the second half of the ninth century and beginning of the tenth century, before the proclamation of the Umayyad Caliphate by Abderraman III (929 CE). Three technological groups have been distinguished: transparent glazes of one or two colours, transparent polychrome glazes (represented by two pieces) and opaque polychrome glazes (represented by two ceramics) studied by SEM-EDS analysis. After the study, different al-Andalus glaze workshops have been identified as providers of glazed ware to El Tolmo de Minateda site. The initial hypothesis was that the ware consumed in El Tolmo was manufactured in Pechina, the closest early production centre. However, after the archaeometric analysis, it has been discarded, and all the indications of this study seem to point to Córdoba as a significant supplier. The data of this study provides a new perspective on how the internal regional distribution and marketing of goods took place in Al-Andalus during the late Emiral period (c. 875–929 CE), a subject that has yet to be explored.

Shaping the sacred along the Silk Roads: the millenary artistic tradition of making “monumental terracruda sculptures”

This paper presents a depth revision of the technological, material, and symbolic knowledge of what we advocate to be identified as “monumental terracruda sculpture” along the Silk Roads. Through a highly interdisciplinary approach, combining a) the latest results of archaeometric analysis carried out on Buddhist examples, b) the documentation of traditional knowledge in making terracruda sculptures in Buddhist and Hindu religious practices, and c) the systematic review of the archaeological and anthropological literature on this topic, this work brings new evidence for proposing the existence of a common pattern of elaboration of monumental terracruda sculptures, connecting traditional Buddhist and Hinduist artworks with a millenary artistic tradition that uses raw earth as the preferred material for the representation of the sacred. The recognition of this common pattern in the production of monumental terracruda sculptures led to the questioning of the prevailing archaeological narrative of a Hellenistic origin of the technique as well as the causes of its popularity within Buddhism from the 4th century CE onwards. Based on the qualitative and quantitative evidence discussed in this paper, new interpretations about the origin and spread of this cultural expression are finally proposed. Finally, the need for future research that takes a systemic view of the subject is advocated, proposing a multidisciplinary vision that integrates archaeology, archaeometry, ethnographic research and the study of ancient religious texts.

An Archaeometric Analysis of Black-Appearing Iron Age Glass Beads from Vinha das Caliças 4 (Portugal)

Phoenician colonisation of the Iberian Peninsula in the 1st millennium BCE introduced many novel and luxurious goods to the local populations of the Western Mediterranean. Among them, black-appearing glass beads are characteristic of indigenous female burials in Southern Portugal during the 6th century BCE. This study presents the results of the first comprehensive archaeometric investigation of black-appearing glass from Vinha das Caliças 4 (Portugal), and of black-appearing glass from the Iberian Peninsula in general. A multi-analytical approach employing Stereomicroscopic observation of manufacture and use traces, VP-SEM-EDS, μ-XRD, and LA-ICP-MS was used to cover a wide range of questions regarding technology and provenance. All analysed samples are natron glass. All samples of black and white beads are characterized by high Zr and low Sr values typically ascribed to the use of Egyptian sands. A comparison of the results of previous studies from the same site clearly demonstrates at least two geochemical provenances for Phoenician-traded glass beads, located in the Levantine region and Egypt, respectively. Furthermore, different colours of glass in individual polychrome beads exhibit similar trace element patterns, which might suggest these beads could have been produced close to glassmaking sites/regions.

Persepolis West: Evidence for a Pigment Production Site and Its Connections with Achaemenid Royal-Official Buildings

Abstract This paper aims at elaborating the potential existence of craft production site(s) for manufacturing the colouring materials in the Persepolis area. In doing so, the paper discusses the colour pigments and elements used for decorating the Achaemenid royal-official buildings, the ancient contexts in which raw materials for colouring have been discovered and the parts of the Persepolis area in which the indication of possible craft production sites have been reported. Particular attention is paid to recently published archaeometric analyses which dealt with the scientific characterization of certain pigments unearthed in Persepolis West. By gathering all the aforementioned information, the author confirms the production of raw materials for colouring in the Persepolis West craft zone. Furthermore, the paper includes a detailed discussion on the exact functions of this craft production site and shows that Persia, together with Egypt, Greece, southern Italy, and eastern Anatolia, was one of the few places in which the production of Egyptian blue is evidenced.

Archaeometric investigations of the Late Roman Period red slip ware from Caesarea Germanicia (Kahramanmaraş, Southeastern Anatolia)

AbstractIn the present study, red slip wares excavated from the ancient city of Germanicia (modern Kahramanmaraş, Southeastern Anatolia) were subjected to an archaeometric analysis. A multi‐analytical approach was employed, including stereomicroscopy, optical microscopy, XRPD, SEM‐EDS, and XRF to explore the mineralogical and chemical compositions of the samples. Based on both archaeological and archaeometric criteria, the samples were classified into three main categories: African, Phocaean, and Sagalassos red slip wares. The African red slip wares were characterized by an abundance of coarse quartz inclusion, accompanied by lesser quantities of plagioclase and mica. The Phocaean red slip wares primarily consisted of quartz, feldspar, and mica. In contrast, the Sagalassos red slip wares featured a groundmass rich in quartz, mica/biotite, hematite, and opaque minerals. Thermoanalytical data indicated that all samples were fired at temperatures between 800 and 900°C. The results suggest that red slip wares found at Germanicia were not manufactured using local available clay sources but rather originated from different regions. This evidence further provides that Germanicia was actively involved in trade networks and interacted with various ancient urban centers, such as Africa, Phocaean, and Sagalassos, during the Late Roman Period, between the fourth and fifth centuries AD.

Initial investigations of rubricated inscriptions from Roman Sicily: Comparing the material evidence with ancient writers’ ideals

Although the polychromy of ancient statuary has become a regular topic in archaeological discussions, in part thanks to archaeometrical analyses, little attention has been given to such aspects in the field of epigraphy. The aim of this paper is to identify analytically the red pigments employed in inscriptions from southeastern Sicily in the Roman period (1st-6th c. CE), and to investigate the relationship between actual material practice and ancient terminology. Minimally invasive identification of cinnabar (mercuric sulphide) on some funerary and honorific inscriptions aligns with Pliny’s statement on the use of “minium”. However, other less expensive lead-containing pigments were detected, suggesting that different materials were used in different contexts and according to various practices. It appears from this preliminary study that choices of ancient red pigments can provide additional information for understanding epigraphic cultures.

Huge amounts of iron raw material from the Early Iron Age settlement of Dédestapolcsány-Verebce (N-Hungary) – a preliminary archaeometallurgical study

The team of the Institute of Archaeological Sciences of the Eötvös Loránd University has been investigating the Early Iron Age hillfort at Dédestapolcsány-Verebce-bérc (Northeast Hungary) since 2020. The settlement was destroyed by siege in the late 7th century BC, as evidenced by hundreds of early Scythian bronze arrowheads and burnt buildings. Based on the recovered metal and pottery findings the settlement dated to the Early Iron Age in the Carpathian Basin (end of the 7th century – beginning of the 6th century BC). The quantity of the Early and Middle Iron Age iron and bronze artefacts and pieces of iron raw material on the site is exceptionally high. More than 30 depots were unearthed which include pieces of iron raw material. In the whole territory, the number of these finds is more than 600. The average weight of the pieces was 1.54 kg. A few selected objects were sampled and subjected to archaeometric analysis (OM and SEM-EDS). The main aim of the examinations carried out by the experts of the Archaeometallurgical Research Group of the University of Miskolc (ARGUM) was the material characterisation of the samples to figure out what kind of processing has been applied and reveal how the iron raw materials can be connected in any way to the other iron objects found at the site. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the iron pieces are compacted with a slightly heterogeneous structure. Each one is a part of a single bloom, not several pieces of different blooms assembled together. Numerous pores and cavities were observed in the microstructure of the samples. Their basic character is similar, although, they differ from each other, mainly in terms of carbon content and degree of forming. These pieces are not typical semi-finished products; they can be identified somewhere halfway between primary bloom and compacted bar.

Tracing the road of elephant ivory at the end of Late Antiquity – Archaeometric analysis of ivory artefacts from the 6th–7th-century Carpathian Basin

AbstractElephant ivory, a prestigious and valuable raw material in the post-Roman West and Byzantium between the 5th and 7th centuries AD, may originate from various sources. While both written and art historical evidence suggests that in the case of early medieval artefacts, African provenance is more likely than Asian, no data at hand is conclusive. The present paper investigates, with the help of FTIR and Raman spectroscopy, carbon and nitrogen concentration and nitrogen isotope (δ15N) analyses, the material resources of elephant ivory artefacts discovered in 6th- and 7th-century AD archaeological context in the Carpathian Basin to contribute to our understanding of late antique long-distance trade networks and economic relations.