Archaeometallurgical Analysis Research Articles

A Metal Production Center on the Southwest Frontier of the Han Empire: An Archaeometallurgical Study of the Heimajing Cemetery Site in Gejiu, Yunnan Province, China

The Gejiu region in southeast Yunnan Province was an important metal and ore production area in China as early as the Han Dynasty (202 b.c.–a.d. 220). Past archaeological investigations in this region discovered an ancient smelting site. Large numbers of smelting-related relics including lead discs, copper ingots, and smelting wastes were also excavated from the Heimajing cemetery site nearby. These discoveries suggest that the burial occupants were probably involved in ancient mining, metal smelting, and the metal production industry. An archaeometallurgical analysis of smelting-related relics was conducted. The results demonstrated that lead, copper, and different copper-base alloys were produced in the region. The chemical compositional analysis and lead isotope studies of the samples collected from the Heimajing cemetery site suggest that there was probably a production and supply system and a demand for copper-base products in the Dian Kingdom (now central Yunnan) and Jiaozhi Commandery (now northern Vietnam) through cross-regional resource allocation. The Gejiu region therefore might have had a complete industry chain on the southwest frontier of the Han Empire.

Archaeometallurgical Analysis of Lead Weights and Sling Bullets from Seleucid Tell Iẓṭabba: More on Lead Origin in Seleucid Palestine

Lead isotope and portable energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry were applied to a small group of Hellenistic lead objects from Tell Iztabba (Beth Shean, Israel). The market weights and sling bullets from this short-lived Seleucid-founded site were analysed in order to understand their production process and the provenance of the raw materials. The sling bullets are of pure lead, and its lead isotopic signature suggests that the lead was produced from Lavrion ores. The weights are heterogeneous in composition and point to the use of mixed or reused scrap metal. Anatolian or Aegaean lead ores are the raw material sources for the weights. Whether the sling bullets belonged to the defenders of the site or to the attackers cannot be determined from the analysis, but their Greek provenance together with the fact that they were recovered at the site may suggest their use by its defenders.

Archaeometallurgical Analysis of Thirteenth-Century Bronze and Iron Construction Implements from the Walls of the Frankish Castle at Arsuf/Arsur

Archaeometallurgical Analysis of Thirteenth-Century Bronze and Iron Construction Implements from the Walls of the Frankish Castle at Arsuf/Arsur

Cvrtkovci hoard in the context of the potential of the Late Bronze Age hoards from Bosnia

The hoards from northern Bosnia, especially those along the wider stream area of river Bosna, are culturally and technologically interpreted in close connection with the emanating pattern of their manifestation in the wider area of south-western Pannonia and the extremely rich Posavina region within it. Data on 11 hoards in the region currently exists, with around 570 items and fragments recorded within these. Most hoards are considered to be representative of the cultural circumstances of the time and place in which they were deposited. Among them are included several exceptionally interesting recently published hoards from Majdan/Ridžal, Paležnica and Srebrenik, each with their own idiosyncrasies. These are now complemented by a hoard from Cvrtkovci, which is presented here in greater detail. All of these hoards, through typological-stylistic analysis and chronological attribution, have been attributed to the earlier period of the Urnfield culture, i.e., defined as falling within the range of phase II hoards of Bosnia and Herzegovina. As a result, they are deemed to be characteristic of an integral part of the enigmatic Pan-European phenomenon of the Late Bronze Age, synchronized with the Ha A1 phase of Central European periodization of the 13th and 12th centuries BC.In the analyses of Bosnian hoards undertaken to date, an emphasis has been placed on the interpretation of objects as a valuable resource for typological and chronological evaluation, an approach that also forms the basis of this research. However, questions as to the spatial arrangement of the hoards within the landscape, interpersonal connections and origins have only recently been raised, and here, for the first time, an archaeo-metallurgical analysis of isotopes of representative objects from the Cvrtkovci hoard is presented.

A Metal Production Center on the Southwest Frontier of the Han Empire: An Archaeometallurgical Study of the Heimajing Cemetery Site in Gejiu, Yunnan Province, China

The Gejiu region in southeast Yunnan Province was an important metal and ore production area in China as early as the Han Dynasty (202 B.C. – A.D. 220). Past archaeological investigations in this region discovered an ancient smelting site. Large numbers of smelting-related relics including lead discs, copper ingots, and smelting wastes were also excavated from the Heimajing cemetery site nearby. These discoveries suggest that the burial occupants were probably involved in ancient mining, metal smelting, and the metal production industry. An archaeometallurgical analysis of smelting-related relics was conducted. The results demonstrated that lead, copper, and different copper-base alloys were produced in the region. The chemical compositional analysis and lead isotope studies of the samples collected from the Heimajing cemetery site suggest that there was probably a production and supply system and a demand for copper-base products in the Dian Kingdom (now central Yunnan) and Jiaozhi commandery (now northern Vietnam) through cross-regional resource allocation. The Gejiu region therefore might have had a complete industry chain on the southwest frontier of the Han Empire.

The Early Iron Metallurgy of Bassar, Togo: furnaces, metallurgical remains and iron objects

ABSTRACTAn extensive iron production industry flourished in the Bassar region of northern Togo from as early as the Early Iron Age. However, it was during the Later Iron Age that this witnessed a period of rapid growth, with locally produced iron increasingly feeding into regional trade networks. This paper discusses the archaeology, archaeometallurgy and metallography of the earliest iron production in Bassar through the examination of two sites. The first, BAS-252 (Dekpassanware), is a large ironworking village (in operation throughout the Early and Later Iron Ages) with six zones devoted primarily to smithing. The second, the nearby site of BAS-273, was found to be a smaller smelting site and operated in the Early Iron Age. The paper presents a metallographic analysis of the EIA iron artefacts excavated at BAS-252, in conjunction with an archaeometallurgical analysis of EIA smelting remains from BAS-273. The close association of smithing and smelting sites has provided an unparalleled opportunity to consider the chaîne opératoire of iron production in EIA Bassar, with insights into the production of iron alloyed with carbon and phosphorus and the possible symbolic behaviours of past smelters at a time when the foundations were being laid for Bassar to develop subsequently into a regional hub of iron production.

Archaeometallurgical Analysis of Bronze Artifacts: A Magnetometer Approach

Bronze has been utilized by human civilization for the past five millennia, and societies across the globe have mined, extracted, and purified copper and tin to create bronze alloys. Due to the different mineral composition of ores and the varying techniques involved with metal smelting, bronze artifacts from around the world often have very different chemical compositions. The determination of chemical composition is often invasive and expensive, and is usually conducted in laboratories. We previously developed an inexpensive and mobile test to identify metal alloys based on their magnetic signatures. We demonstrated that metals of different compositions would exhibit different electrical conductivity, and thus different magnetic field strengths when evoked by different levels of electric current. In this manuscript, we now detail the experiment protocol to produce evoked dynamic electromagnetic signals from bronze alloys, and the capture of signals with the smartphone magnetometer.

Steelmaking in India - new evidence from microscopic and archaeometallurgical analysis from middle Ganga plain, Balirajgarh.

The present study deliberates on the archaeometallurgical examination of 2300 years old excavated iron nail from India's middle Ganga plain of Balirajgarh. The nail was subjected to multianalytical investigations in order to determine the raw materials used, manufacturing technology and preservation state. The combined analytical techniques optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDX), Vickers hardness and X-ray diffractometry shed light towards the characterisation and use of the iron artefact. Special attention was paid for qualitative and quantitative analysis of slag inclusions, metal matrix and corrosion products. The presence of heterogeneous microstructure and inclusion of impurities suggests that nail has been produced through the direct process and work hardened. The noncorroded nail is made of hypereutectoid steel and used for building purpose. The study is important to understand the role of technology in the evolution of cultural changes in India that also provides archaeometric data on the method used in the forging work.

ARCHAEOMETALLURGICAL ANALYSIS OF MARITIME STEEL NAILS FROM CRUSADER JAFFA, ca. 13TH CENTURY AD

ARCHAEOMETALLURGICAL ANALYSIS OF MARITIME STEEL NAILS FROM CRUSADER JAFFA, ca. 13TH CENTURY AD

Archaeometallurgical analysis of the bow drill from the fifth century BC Ma‘agan Mikhael shipwreck

Three bow drills were discovered in the 400 BC Ma‘agan Mikhael ship. Radiography revealed a square cross-section recess for the bit in the wooden stock of one of the drills. Metal particles, remains of a bit, survived in the recess. The metal composition, microstructure and manufacturing technology of the bit were studied using non-destructive and minimally destructive testing methods. These comprised digital radiography, light microscopy, X-ray fluorescence analysis, scanning electronic microscopy–energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis, and micro-hardness indentation tests. The results demonstrated that the bit was made of wrought iron manufactured by the direct smelting process. A martensitic microstructure was observed after etching the external part of the bit. Examination of the iron oxide areas revealed a layered microstructure. Therefore, it is suggested that the bit was probably manufactured by forge-welding thin alternating layers of carburized wrought iron, which was heat-treated and quenched without tempering. This microstructure improved the hardness and strength of the metal. This is the first time that a metal bit found on a shipwreck of the period has been metallurgically investigated. It shows that the ancient blacksmiths produced the drill bit using the most suitable materials and advanced manufacturing processes. This information enlarges our limited knowledge about the use of carpenter’s tools in the East Greek/Phocaean fifth century BC shipbuilding tradition.

Examination and analysis of Indian silver punch‐marked coins employing WD‐XRF and other noninvasive techniques

The archaeometallurgical analysis of ancient silver coins provides useful information regarding fabrication methodology, provenance, and trade route and explains large diversification in elementary composition, weight, and physical features. The present investigation deals with the chemical analysis and examination of the processing history of Indian punch‐marked silver coins dating to 400–200 bc. The chemical analysis was carried out by wavelength dispersive X‐ray fluorescence and X‐ray Diffraction (XRD). The microstructural examination was performed using field emission scanning electron microscope (FE‐SEM) and different phases were identified by Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive X‐ray (SEM‐EDX) Spectroscopy. It was observed that all eight coins were manufactured with silver‐copper alloy. The ore used for obtaining silver was argentiferous galena, and cupellation was carried with perfection. The absence of slag inclusions as revealed by SEM examination indicated that coins (numbers 2, 4, 5, and 7) were cast from a molten state. The presence of Cu2O, CuO, and Ag2O on the surfaces of the coins was confirmed by XRD. The formed oxide layers provided protection and saved the coins from bulky corrosion products. The data reveal great divergence of coin surface from the composition of the core with the far better metallurgical process for refining of silver for this hoard.

Methodologies for the investigation of corroded iron objects: examples from prehistoric sites in South-eastern Arabia and Western Iran

ABSTRACTAncient iron objects from early Iron Age archaeological sites are almost always severely corroded, which can severely limit the possibilities for their archaeometallurgical analysis. In this paper, a range of corroded iron objects from different sites and regions of the ancient Near East are investigated with the purpose of developing an integrated scientific approach to the investigation of such materials, outlining the capabilities and major technical limitations of currently available techniques. Specific objectives of the research include: (1) Assessing the state of degradation of ancient ferrous objects in respect to the portion of remnant carburized areas preserved; (2) Identifying metallographic structures and evaluating the carbon content from the observation of remnant carburized areas; (3) Developing an understanding of the representativeness of remnant carburized areas in corroded ferrous samples; and (4) Exploring the validity and technical constraints of SEM-EDS analyses of slag inclusions in corroded iron artefacts for the determination of provenance.

Archaeometallurgical and archaeological investigation of Hellenistic metal objects from Ashdod-Yam (Israel)

The archaeological site of Ashdod-Yam is located on the Mediterranean coast of Israel, in the southern part of the modern city of Ashdod. In this study, we present the analysis of various metal objects from the Hellenistic period, retrieved at Ashdod-Yam during two seasons of renewed excavations. The objects were characterized by metallurgical non-destructive and minimal-destructive testing methods, including stereo microscopy, XRF and SEM-EDS measurements, in order to determine their composition and manufacturing process. The examined artefacts were originally made of copper alloys, lead and iron. Our research indicates that the manufacturing of the objects involved diverse techniques, including casting, hammering, cold-forging and annealing cycles, drilling, engraving, as well as joining methods such as forge-welding and soldering, indicating that the artefacts were made by trained metalsmiths and were most probably produced in different workshops. Due to the paucity of studies dedicated to systematic archaeometallurgical analysis of Hellenistic metal objects from the southern Levant, this article contributes to a better understanding of Hellenistic technological practices in this part of the world.

Smelting in the Shadow of the Iron Mountain: Preliminary Field Investigation of the Industrial Landscape around Phnom Dek, Cambodia (Ninth to Twentieth Centuries a.d.)

The high-grade mineral ores of the Phnom Dek region in central Cambodia have long been suspected of playing a major role in the rise of Angkor, the largest medieval polity in mainland Southeast Asia. This article presents the first comprehensive study by the Industries of Angkor Project (INDAP) to document the extent of industrial activity in this region and test this important relationship. Using a combination of intensive field survey, surface collection, and archaeometallurgical analysis, we evaluate the temporal and spatial patterning of iron production and the heterogeneity of smelting systems. The identification of at least three different smelting traditions has a significant impact on the current view that twentieth-century Kuay smelting practices extend deep into Cambodia’s history, and their relationship with Angkor in particular. More broadly, the survey demonstrates the importance of Phnom Dek as a major production zone on par with more well-known examples in Roman Europe and Africa.

Silver production at al‐Radrad: archaeometallurgical analysis of ore, slag and technical ceramics from early medieval Yemen

The zinc‐lead‐silver deposit of al‐Jabali, about 65 km north‐east of Sana'a in Yemen, has been identified as the location of the late antique/Islamic period silver mine al‐Radrad. Exploitation of the mine is known from the account of al‐Hamdani, an Arab geographer of the tenth century AD. The al‐Jabali area has been the focus of geological and archaeometallurgical surveys, and extensive metallurgical remains have been discovered. Samples of ore, slag and technical ceramics were collected for archaeometallurgical analysis. The technology of silver production is discussed in relation to the historical record, and elemental and lead isotope characterisation of ore and slag provides a basis for future provenance studies.

The new Late Bronze Age hoard find from Kobbelbude (former Eastern Prussia, district Fischhausen) and the first results of its archaeometallurgical investigations

This article deals with a new discovered Late Bronze Age hoard find from former Kobbelbude (district Fischhausen, Eastern Prussia, now district Kaliningrad, Russian Federation). The hoard find is of special importance because it is the first time that metallurgical investigations were carried out on its artefacts. Archaeometallurgical analysis is, apart from few exceptions, still a desideratum of research in the eastern Baltic region. Also, for the first time, lead isotope ratios were determined. The results of the isotopic composition of the lead show a first hint towards a possible Eastern Alpine origin of the used ores. Former archaeometallurgical research of Bronze Age metal finds from the eastern Baltic region suggested a more abstract assumption about the origin of the ores from Middle Europe. Moreover, with the analysis of the chemical composition of the artefacts from Kobbelbude, a material classification to the type “dilute” fahlore copper with nickel, which we know from Late Bronze Age Middle Europe, was drawn. The results presented in this paper are a first step in the field of archaeometallurgical research in the eastern Baltic region and open a new perspective on Bronze Age metallurgy in relation to cultural history.

A Box Containing Carpenter's Accessories from The Akko 1 Shipwreck, Israel: Archaeometallurgical Analysis of Surviving Ironwork

The Akko 1 shipwreck was an Egyptian armed vessel, built at the beginning of the 19th century. A wooden saw handle and a box containing iron nails and two split pins were discovered towards the stern. Given their function, location and context, these were part of the ship's carpenter's tools and accessories. A methodology was developed for conducting systematic metallurgical analysis in order to understand the manufacturing process of the surviving ironwork items, as well as to enlarge our knowledge regarding ironworking technologies during the early 19th century. Such methodology may assist in the future understanding of the technological evolution of similar wrought-iron objects. The results demonstrated that the artefacts have a wrought-iron heterogeneous microstructure and were manufactured by hot-working prior to surface hardening by pack carburization.

Archaeometallurgical analysis of metal remains from the Dor 2006 shipwreck: A clue to the understanding of the transition in ship construction

The Dor 2006 Byzantine shipwreck was discovered in 2006, 800m south of Dor (Tantura) lagoon, Israel, about 100m offshore, in a water depth of 4m, covered by sand. It was a large ship about 25m long, and its timber remains spread over 10.5m by 4.5m. The shipwreck was dated between the mid-6th and the first quarter of the 7th centuries AD. Among the finds were remains of metal objects, comprising two coins, a lead sheet, and concretions of nails and a sickle. Metallurgical non-destructive and destructive analyses of the metal remains demonstrated that the coins were made of copper–lead alloy with a high concentration of lead, produced by casting, later stamped with coin die. The lead sheet was produced by casting, and later shaped into its final form. SEM-EDS, XRD, and XRF analyses revealed that the nail remains were essentially completely corroded iron. Analysis of the completely corroded sickle remains revealed that it was made of bloomery iron. It is suggested that the use of lead in the coins and tin in the lead sheet was due to economic constraints. Iron nails, although widespread, also indicate a preference for a cheaper metal than copper alloy. The lead isotope signature of the lead sheet indicates that the source of the ore was Greece or the Taurus Mountains, which may hint at the origin of the ship or her sailing routes. The ship was built during the period of the transition in ship construction from shell-first to frame-based. The reasons for this transition, which is a well-known process, have been explained only in abstract terms, such as economics, sociology and geography. The use of low-grade metals may be an example of economic pressure, and a specific explanation for the transition.

Copper Earrings in La Araucanía: Earliest Evidence of Metal Usage in Southern Chile

We report on the archaeometallurgical analysis of eight pieces of copper recovered from the Villa JMC-1 cemetery (Pitren Complex, Early Ceramic period) in the locality of Labranza, La Araucania. These artifacts provide the earliest evidence of metal use in southern Chile. They are also the southernmost prehispanic metal artifacts ever found in South America. These contextualized results complement those obtained from the analysis of an earring from Kilómetro 0—Enlace Temuco (El Vergel Complex, Late Ceramic period), an archaeological residential site dated to almost 500 years after the Labranza cemetery. Particle Induced X-ray Emission, X-ray radiography, and stereomicroscopy analyses allow us to offer an elemental characterization of the pieces, an assessment of their manufacturing process, and a comparison between the metals and alloys discovered. We follow with a discussion of proposals regarding cultural relations in the Araucania region during different time periods.

On-going Investigations at the Predynastic to Early Dynastic site of Kafr Hassan Dawood: Copper, Exchange and Tephra

Continued analysis of material – primarily ceramic – excavated during the 1990s at the Predynastic to Early Dynastic cemetery site of Kafr Hassan Dawood (KHD) in the Wadi Tumilat has allowed seven phases of use to be identified. This process has been greatly helped by the acquisition of further archival material of the 1989 to 1995 excavations. The assigning of these phases was also aided by the dating of tephra from a layer covering First Dynasty graves ; it has provided a terminus post quem for certain graves dug into this layer in the south of the site that did not have any grave goods and has also given a terminus ante quem for all the graves below this layer. Archaeometallurgical analysis of a copper bowl from grave 913 has shown that it was made of arsenical copper, which probably came from the Sinai. The large amount of copper artefacts found at KHD may indicate its function as a node on the interregional exchange network between the Sinai and the Memphite region.