Archaeological Sites In China Research Articles

Rice's trajectory from wild to domesticated in East Asia.

Rice (Oryza sativa) serves as a staple food for more than one-third of the global population. However, its journey from a wild gathered food to domestication remains enigmatic, sparking ongoing debates in the biological and anthropological fields. Here, we present evidence of rice phytoliths sampled from two archaeological sites in China, Shangshan and Hehuashan, near the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. We demonstrate the growth of wild rice at least 100,000 years before present, its initial exploitation as a gathered resource at about 24,000 years before present, its predomestication cultivation at about 13,000 years before present, and eventually its domestication at about 11,000 years before present. These developmental stages illuminate a protracted process of rice domestication in East Asia and extend the continuous records of cereal evolution beyond the Fertile Crescent.

Determination of the temporal–spatial distribution patterns of ancient heritage sites in China and their influencing factors via GIS

In this paper, we analysed the temporal and spatial distributions of ancient archaeological sites in China as well as their influencing factors. Our aim was to reveal the developmental trajectory of Chinese civilisation and to explore the natural and cultural factors affecting human distribution, with the goal of providing insights for the conservation and development of ancient relics. We employed spatial analysis methods using ArcGIS 10.8 software, such as kernel density analysis and trend surface analysis, to analyse 1194 historical ancient sites listed in the National Cultural Relics Protection Units of China. The research findings are as follows: (1) the distribution of ancient sites demonstrates an agglomerative spatial pattern. The nearest neighbour index (R < 1) for sites from various historical periods indicates an agglomerative spatial distribution of ancient sites across historical periods, with the clustering degree being relatively poor for sites from the Wei-Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties and in the Ming and Qing periods. The regions with a concentration of ancient sites are the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River and Yellow River Basins. Furthermore, there is a higher abundance of ancient sites in the southeastern region than in the northwestern region. (2) The distribution of ancient sites in different historical periods also exhibits an imbalance, with an overall decreasing trend in the number of ancient sites in China. Notably, more ancient sites were found for the prehistoric and pre-Qin periods. The temporal trend of ancient sites during historical periods follows a trajectory from northeast to northwest, northeast to southwest, etc. (3) The temporal and spatial distributions of ancient sites are influenced by multiple factors, including social development, the natural environment, geographical elements, and socioeconomic and political factors. Finally, based on an understanding of the spatiotemporal distribution pattern of ancient sites and the factors that influence this pattern, recommendations for conservation and development can be proposed and supported by modern technological methods, with the aim of offering insights for the protection and sustainable development of heritage sites.

Glacial–Interglacial Cycles and Early Human Evolution in China

China is a crucial region for investigating the relationship between climate change and hominin evolution across diverse terrestrial ecosystems. With the continuous development of palaeoclimatology, chronology, and archaeology, the environmental and hominin record of the Early and Middle Pleistocene in China is steadily accumulating, shedding light on the effects of climate change on the distribution of early human settlements and population dynamics. However, the migration and dispersal of these early humans within long-term climate fluctuations and their underlying mechanisms remain to be clarified. Based on the spatial-temporal distribution of 95 Early to Middle Pleistocene archaeological sites in China, we found that intensified hominin activities gradually shifted southward under the influence of multiple glacial–interglacial cycles. The frequent bidirectional movements of these early humans between north and south were assumed as follows. During glacial periods, hominins living in North China migrated to southern areas, while inter-glacial periods witnessed the northward expansion of hominins inhabiting South China. Among all the potential driving mechanisms, we suggest that the available resources in terrestrial ecosystems may be the most fundamental factor. Combined with paleoenvironmental and archaeological records, we provide an Asian perspective for a better understanding of how the glacial–interglacial cycles shaped early human evolution.

Archaeological Tourism, World Heritage and Social Value: A Comparative Study in China

ABSTRACT This article investigates the relationship between archaeological tourism, UNESCO World Heritage designation, and the social value attached to archaeological sites in China. It aims to provide novel insights into such connections by examining the impact of archaeological tourism on the social values that local communities place on archaeological sites that are in the process of becoming World Heritage Sites. In recent decades, the increasing commercialization of archaeological sites for tourism, combined with the growing influence of the World Heritage listing process, has had a significant impact on the lives of communities in close proximity to archaeological sites. One way to comprehend such an effect is to examine changes in the social values assigned to those sites by their local residents. This is due to the ability of tourism development to (re)create and modify such values attributed to archaeological sites by changing their function, capacity, quality, and meaning. The World Heritage listing process, particularly during the pre-nomination period, plays an important role in shaping the tourist transformation of these sites in preparation for World Heritage inscription. Against this backdrop, this article focuses on two archaeological sites that have recently obtained the World Heritage status: the Daming Palace archaeological site and the Huashan rock art area. By applying ethnographic approaches, the article illustrates the complex influence of tourism development and the World Heritage Convention on contemporary Chinese society, in order to encourage further reflection on the existing management and development mechanisms of archaeological sites in China and around the world.

Molecular and crystal structures of cellulose in severely deteriorated archaeological wood

Preservation and conservation of archaeological wooden artifacts is extremely challenging due to a lack of knowledge about the hierarchical structure of preserved cellulose. Herein we report on the comparative analysis of eight archaeological and four recent wood samples from three archaeological sites in China by a variety of methods, including micro-morphology, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrum, X-ray scattering, chromatographic analysis of wood sugars, and solid state 13C CP/MAS NMR. Results show that deterioration on the microscale is clearly related to a fragmentation of both the cellulose crystallite structure and the cellulose microfibrils. Slightly deteriorated archaeological wood features cellulose crystallites and microfibrils, comparable to non-degraded recent wood, whereas severely deteriorated wood shows higher porosity of the wood cell wall, fragmented cellulose aggregates instead of fibrils and nearly no crystallinity. Alterations in molecular structures resulted in advanced degradation of both amorphous and crystalline cellulose domains. Only a small amount of cellulose was preserved. The data allows to assume highly fragmented but still partially crystalline cellulose lamellas.Graphical abstract

Phytolith analysis of Naminan archaeological site in Jinghong City, Yunnan Province

&lt;sec&gt;The global climate underwent tremendous changes during the transition from the Last Glacial Period to the Holocene. At almost the same time, human society transitioned from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic. Therefore, the relationship between climate change and human activity during this period has become a research hotspot.&lt;/sec&gt;&lt;sec&gt;Yunnan Province is a region with a great abundance of Paleolithic archaeological sites in China; however, Neolithic sites are relatively few. There has also been relatively little research on paleoclimatic conditions during the Paleolithic-Neolithic transition in Yunnan. Phytoliths, as a highly durable and long-lasting form of plant microfossils, can be an important means for reconstructing paleoclimates. In this study, we examined the Naminan site in Jinghong, which was occupied during the transitional period from the Paleolithic to Neolithic. Based on our analysis of the phytolith record at Naminan, we reconstructed the climatic conditions for each of the archaeological strata and discussed possible human activities. The results show that Naminan experienced a sequence of warming followed by cooling and warming, which is consistent with previous paleoclimate research in other areas of Yunnan Province.&lt;/sec&gt;

China as a Center of Origin and Domestication of Chicken: A Review

China has about 107 local chicken breeds and is considered one of the richest countries in terms of genetic resources. This diversity is a source of richness natural resources across the globe and is regarded as an excellent material for genetic improvement of breeds or breeding new breeds around the world. The present review highlights the recent evidence and studies of chicken origin and domestication in China and Southeast Asia. The evidence of molecular genetics and archeological results supported that multiple regions and event were contributed to the creation of chicken evolution from Red Jungle fowl and the findings proposed that one of events happened in domestication of chicken 8000 BP in Southeast of Asia. Several researchers confirmed that China was declared as most important of the world as a first centers for the chicken’s domestication and these chickens have remained in many archaeological sites in China.

Female craniometrics support the \u2018two-layer model\u2019 of human dispersal in Eastern Eurasia

This study reports a cranio-morphometric analysis of female human remains from seven archaeological sites in China, Vietnam and Taiwan that date between 16,000 and 5300 BP. The aim of the analysis is to test the “two-layer” model of human dispersal in eastern Eurasia, using previously unanalysed female remains to balance the large sample of previously-analysed males. The resulting craniometric data indicate that the examined specimens all belong to the “first layer” of dispersal, and share a common ancestor with recent Australian and Papuan populations, and the ancient Jomon people of Japan. The analysed specimens pre-date the expansion of agricultural populations of East/Northeast Asian origin—that is, the “second layer” of human dispersal proposed by the model. As a result of this study, the two-layer model, which has hitherto rested on evidence only from male skeletons, is now strongly supported by female-derived data. Further comparisons reveal that the people of the first layer were closer in terms of their facial morphology to modern Africans and Sri Lankan Veddah than to modern Asians and Europeans, suggesting that the Late Pleistocene through Middle Holocene hunter-gatherers examined in this study were direct descendants of the anatomically modern humans who first migrated out of Africa through southern Eurasia.

Insight Into the Crystallinity of Chinese Ancient Silk by Synchrotron Radiation-Based and Conventional X-ray Diffraction Methods

This study investigates the crystallinity distribution of ancient silk. Owing to the inherent multi-hierarchical structure of silk protein and the complicated structural changes that occur due to various burial environments, it is challenging but worthwhile to study ancient silk ageing behavior, which is based on the fact that ageing begins with a single fiber and then spreads to a whole fabric. Crystallinity was one of the most effective indicators found to reveal the ageing status of silk. Therefore, a synchrotron radiation-based X-ray diffraction(SR-XRD) method was employed to study the crystallinity distribution of single fibers of ancient silk unearthed from seven archaeological sites in China from historical periods including the warring states, Han dynasty, Song dynasty, and Ming dynasty. In comparison, the conventional X-ray diffraction method, which uses large amounts of samples, was also performed to determine the integral crystallinity of ancient silk. Thermal stability experiments by thermogravimetry(TG) as well as morphology observations by scanning electron microscopy(SEM) and optical microscopy(OM) all confirmed the deterioration of ancient silk. Moreover, the ageing mechanism of ancient silk was proposed with the assistance of an artificial ageing study. The results confirmed the effectiveness of SR-XRD as an ageing indicator, revealing the crystallinity distribution. This research could provide motivation to determine the deterioration status of ancient silk, and would also aid in explaining the fragility of ancient silk due to ageing.

A review on the spread of prehistoric agriculture from southern China to mainland Southeast Asia

The origins and spread of agriculture was one of the milestones in human history. When and how prehistoric agriculture spread to mainland Southeast Asia is highly concerned, which contributed to the formation of modern Austroasiatic in this region. Previous studies mainly focused on the time and route of rice agriculture’s introduction into Southeast Asia while millet agriculture was not paid proper attention. Here we analyze 312 14C dating data yielded from charred seeds of rice ( Oryza sativa ), foxtail millet ( Setaria italica ) and broomcorn millet ( Panicum miliaceum ) from 128 archaeological sites in China and mainland Southeast Asia. The result shows that millet farming was introduced to mainland Southeast Asia in the late third millennium BC and rice farming was in the late second millennium BC. The agriculture of mainland Southeast Asia might originate from three areas, Southwest China, Guangxi-West Guangdong and coastal Fujian. The spread route of ancient agriculture in Southwest China is close to the “Southwest Silk Road” recorded in literature, which implies there was possibly a channel of cultural exchanges on the eastern margin of Tibetan Plateau already in the late Neolithic period, laying the foundation for the Southwest Silk Road later.

Influence of different extraction methods on prehistoric phytolith radiocarbon dating

The use of carbon in phytoliths for radiocarbon dating is recognized as a non-traditional radiocarbon dating method. Its reliability in constructing the chronological sequence of archaeological sites has been questioned in recent studies. The influence of different phytolith extraction methods on dating results has been considered as the potential cause of distortion in phytolith dating. However, few studies have focused on comparing different phytolith extraction methods for measuring radiocarbon. In this study, we applied two methods, a conventional method utilizing pre-treatment with H2O2 and HCl and an improved method, to extract phytoliths from the cultural layers of several archaeological sites in China. The results showed that phytolith dates acquired using the conventional method were approximately 3000–10,000 years older than those found using the improved method. This large distortion in phytolith dates was likely caused by clays within the phytoliths and organic materials on the surfaces of phytoliths, which were not completely removed. The phytolith dates acquired using the improved method were consistent with the ages estimated from the typological sequence, indicating that our soil phytolith dates were not markedly biased by the older carbon absorbed from the soil.

An investigation of the dye palette in Chinese silk embroidery from Dunhuang (Tang dynasty)

‘Sakyamuni preaching on Vulture Peak’ is one of the largest known Chinese silk embroideries thought to date to the eighth century, under the Tang dynasty (618–907). It was found at the cave temple site of Qian Fo Dong, near Dunhuang, one of the most famous archaeological sites in China, and is now in the British Museum (BM). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to investigate the state of degradation of the original and restoration fibres, which appeared very brittle in many areas. Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectrometry was undertaken to give an indication of the mordants. Although the results were difficult to interpret due to elemental contamination, some indications were obtained regarding aluminium and iron mordants on the silk embroidery. Selected dyed threads were sampled and analysed using high pressure liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS). The samples were representative of the entire dye palette used. In some of the areas that are now demonstrated to be extremely faded, safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) was identified. More than one source of indigotin was probably used for the blues, and the greens were obtained by mixing these with at least two sources of yellow dyes: a berberine- and a luteolin-based dye. Browns were tannin-based. Two sources of reds were also present: a plant of the Rubiaceae family and a currently unknown red source. The presence of shikonin, probably from gromwell (Lithospermum erythrorhizon), was revealed in a purple stripe in mixture with sappan wood Caesalpinia sappan (Biancaea sappan) to obtain a particular hue. Other molecular components were often present with the main dyes and tandem mass spectra were acquired in an attempt to elucidate their structures and discuss the possible reasons for their presence. This work represents an important addition to the current knowledge about Chinese dyes and available mass spectral data for the identification of dye sources in archaeological textiles from the Silk Road.

CASE STUDIES IN LARGE-SCALE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT IN CHINA: THE LIANGZHU, YIN XU, AND HAN YANGLING SITES

Desde o começo do século 21, a China desenvolve projetos de conservação de sítios arqueológicos em grande escala diante das ameaças ligadas à urbanização e às catástrofes naturais, bem como diante da necessidade de mostrar e usar os sítios arqueológicos. Para resolver as dificuldades encontradas, houve modificações de estruturas administrativas como desenvolvimento de novos meios de conservação e uso de sítios de grande escala. Este texto apresenta de forma detalhada a classificação dos casos típicos destes sítios. Apoiando-se na literatura como em pesquisas de campo, o texto tenta resolver duas interrogações fundamentais. A primeira, trata de entender a maneira cuja as agências governamentais adaptam as organizações e os mecanismos existentes para cumprir as exigências sociais, econômicas e ecológicas destes projetos. A segunda, procura esclarecer como identificar as responsabilidades dos diferentes atores na conservação de sítios arqueológicos em contextos de desenvolvimento local.

Drilling wood for fire: discoveries and studies of the fire-making tools in the Yanghai cemetery of ancient Turpan, China

A fire drilling tool was a vital piece of equipment in ancient times for creating fire, and an understanding of the shape of ancient fire drills, the different ways of wood drilling and the strategy of wood selection are of great importance for studying past societies. Due to poor environmental conditions, equipment associated with the making of fire is rarely preserved at archaeological sites in China, and the anatomical characters of these wooden tools have never been investigated. However, the Turpan District in Xinjiang, China is characterized by year-round drought conditions, which provide us with well-preserved plant remains for studying the types of plants used for making fire drills. In the present work, 12 fire drilling tools from ten tombs of the Yanghai cemetery (c.1000 bc–ad 100) were studied. These fire drilling tools were identified as having been made from the wood of Picea sp., Salix sp., Populus sp., Clematis sp. or Aristolochia sp., with the former four taxa native to the local area. The anatomical characteristics of the wood suggest that all of these selected wood types were suitable for use in fire drills. In addition, among the different kinds of fire drilling methods, we found that hand drilling was the main method used by the ancient Yanghai inhabitants and that fire drills played an important part in their pastoral life.

A preliminary application of dental cementum incremental analysis to determine the season-of-death of equids from the Xujiayao site, China

Seasonality study of Paleolithic archaeological faunal assemblages is important for reconstructing modes of animal death and ancient hominin strategies for prey acquisition. The dental cementum of animal teeth records the season of an individual animal in which it died, providing the necessary evidence for determining any patterns in season of death. This article presents the procedure and preliminary results of the application of cementum incremental analysis to equid teeth, which comprise the dominant component of the fauna from the Xujiayao Site—an early Late Pleistocene archaeological site in China. Results show multi-seasonal use in both the upper and lower layers of this site. Furthermore, attention is given to the method’s future application in seasonality studies at Paleolithic archaeological sites in China.

Spatiotemporal distribution patterns of archaeological sites in China during the Neolithic and Bronze Age: An overview

A total of 51,074 archaeological sites from the early Neolithic to the early Iron Age ( c. 8000–500 BC), with a spatial extent covering most regions of China ( c. 73–131°E and c. 20–53°N), were analysed over space and time in this study. Site maps of 25 Chinese provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities, published in the series ‘Atlas of Chinese Cultural Relics’, were used to extract, digitalise and correlate its archaeological data. The data were, in turn, entered into a database using a self-developed mapping software that makes the data, in a dynamic way, analysable as a contribution to various scientific questions, such as population growth and migrations, spread of agriculture and changes in subsistence strategies. The results clearly show asynchronous patterns of changes between the northern and southern parts of China (i.e. north and south of the Yangtze River, respectively) but also within these macro-regions. In the northern part of China (i.e. along the Yellow River and its tributaries and in the Xiliao River basin), the first noticeable increase in the concentration of Neolithic sites occurred between c. 5000 and 4000 BC; however, highest site concentrations were reached between c. 2000 and 500 BC. Our analysis shows a radical north-eastern shift of high site-density clusters (over 50 sites per 100 × 100 km grid cell) from the Wei and middle/lower Yellow Rivers to the Liao River system sometime between 2350 BC and 1750 BC. This shift is hypothetically discussed in the context of the incorporation of West Asian domesticated animals and plants into the existing northern Chinese agricultural system. In the southern part of China, archaeological sites do not show a noticeable increase in the absolute number of sites until after c. 1500 BC, reaching a maximum around 1000 BC.

Tracing the locality of prisoners and workers at the Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang: First Emperor of China (259-210 BC).

The mausoleum complex of the First Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang (259-210 BC), is one of the most famous and important archaeological sites in China, yet questions remain as to how it was constructed and by whom. Here we present isotopic results of individuals from the Liyi (n = 146) and Shanren sites (n = 14), both associated with the mausoleum complex. Those buried at Liyi represent the local workers/inhabitants of the Qin population, and the δ13C (−8.7 ± 1.5%) and δ15N (10.3 ± 0.7%) values indicate that they consumed predominately millet and/or domestic animals fed millet. In contrast, the Shanren individuals were prisoners forced to construct the mausoleum (found buried haphazardly in a mass grave and some in iron leg shackles), and their δ13C (−15.4 ± 2.9%) and δ15N (8.0 ± 0.6%) results indicate a more mixed C3/C4 diet, with possibly less domestic animals and more wild game protein consumed. This pattern of decreased millet consumption is also characteristic of archaeological sites from southern China, and possible evidence the Shanren prisoners originated from this region (possibly the ancient Chu state located in modern day Hubei Province and parts of Hunan and Anhui Provinces). Further, this finding is in agreement with historical sources and is supported by previous ancient DNA evidence that the mausoleum workers had diverse origins, with many genetically related to southern Chinese groups.

Radiocarbon dating of prehistoric phytoliths: a preliminary study of archaeological sites in China.

Phytoliths can occlude some organic carbon during their deposition in plants. This carbon fraction is recognised as an ideal dating material because of its high resistance to decomposition and post-deposition contamination at the time of phytolith formation. However, the reliability of phytolith radiocarbon dating has recently been questioned. The development of a new extraction protocol for phytoliths, with paired dating between phytoliths and other materials from the same sediment, may provide further evidence for the reliability of phytolith dating. We present an improved method for extracting phytoliths from soils. We compared the dating of phytoliths and other materials (e.g., charcoal and plant seeds) recovered at the same depth from seven pits at six archaeological sites in China. The estimated ages of the phytoliths and other materials were generally consistent, except for one outlier. We attribute this inconsistency to the post-depositional processes of phytoliths in soil, rather than to the uptake of old carbon from the soil. Our results clearly show the potential for phytolith carbon dating at archaeological sites in the absence of other dating materials.

Ancient DNA provides new insight into the maternal lineages and domestication of Chinese donkeys.

BackgroundThe donkey (Equus asinus) is an important domestic animal that provides a reliable source of protein and method of transportation for many human populations. However, the process of domestication and the dispersal routes of the Chinese donkey are still unclear, as donkey remains are sparse in the archaeological record and often confused with horse remains. To explore the maternal origins and dispersal route of Chinese donkeys, both mitochondrial DNA D-loop and cytochrome b gene fragments of 21 suspected donkey remains from four archaeological sites in China were amplified and sequenced.ResultsMolecular methods of species identification show that 17 specimens were donkeys and three samples had the maternal genetic signature of horses. One sample that dates to about 20,000 years before present failed to amplify. In this study, the phylogenetic analysis reveals that ancient Chinese donkeys have high mitochondrial DNA diversity and two distinct mitochondrial maternal lineages, known as the Somali and Nubian lineages. These results indicate that the maternal origin of Chinese domestic donkeys was probably related to the African wild ass, which includes the Nubian wild ass (Equus africanus africanus) and the Somali wild ass (Equus africanus somaliensis). Combined with historical records, the results of this study implied that domestic donkeys spread into west and north China before the emergence of the Han dynasty. The number of Chinese domestic donkeys had increased primarily to meet demand for the expansion of trade, and they were likely used as commodities or for shipping goods along the Silk Road during the Tang Dynasty, when the Silk Road reached its golden age.ConclusionsThis study is the first to provide valuable ancient animal DNA evidence for early trade between African and Asian populations. The ancient DNA analysis of Chinese donkeys also sheds light on the dynamic process of the maternal origin, domestication, and dispersal route of ancient Chinese donkeys.

An Explication of the Emperor Scepter Symbol of Ancient Babylon and Ancient China with Oraclebone and Bronze Inscriptions and Relics in Sanxingdui Ruins

Abstract In this article I argue that certain commonalities of ideology, belief and cultural practice existed between the ancient Babylonian empire and ancient Chinese Bronze age empires regarding theocracy, kingship, and governance derived from and represented by the Chinese imperial scepter. Evidence adduced is drawn from the description and use of imperial scepters recorded in ancient Chinese texts, hieroglyphic representations of scepters, material scepters and oracle-bones and their inscriptions, other artifacts unearthed at archaeological sites in China’s Sichuan Basin, astrological instruments, Babylonian stele and inscriptions and the Babylonian zodiac.