Archaeological Samples Research Articles

Raman Handheld Versus Microscopic Spectroscopy for Estimating the Post-Mortem Interval of Human Bones: A Comparative Pilot Study

The post-mortem interval estimation for human skeletal remains is critical in forensic medicine. This study used Raman spectroscopy, specifically comparing a handheld device to a Raman microscope for PMI estimations. Analyzing 99 autopsy bone samples and 5 archeological samples, the research categorized them into five PMI classes using conventional methods. Key parameters—like ν1PO43− intensity and crystallinity—were measured and analyzed. A principal component analysis effectively distinguished between PMI classes, indicating high classification accuracy for both devices. While both methods proved reliable, the fluorescence interference presented challenges in accurately determining the age of archeological samples. Ultimately, the study highlighted how Raman spectroscopy could enhance PMI estimation accuracy, especially in non-specialized labs, suggesting the potential for improved device optimization in the field.

The final plague outbreak in Scotland 1644-1649: Historical, archaeological, and genetic evidence.

This paper has several aims: to determine if Yersinia pestis was the causative agent in the last Scottish plague outbreak in the mid-17th century; map the geographic spread of the epidemic and isolate potential contributing factors to its spread and severity; and examine funerary behaviours in the context of a serious plague epidemic in early modern Scotland. Results confirm the presence of Y. pestis in individuals associated with a mid-17th century plague pit in Aberdeen. This is the first time this pathogen has been identified in an archaeological sample from Scotland. The geographic spread of the plague from 1644 through to 1649 is generally, with some key exceptions, restricted to the central lowlands of Scotland. The role of administrative responses to the epidemic in managing its spread and distribution is unclear. Finally, normative funerary practices tended to co-exist with mass burial scenarios. In conclusion, the distribution of the epidemic is arguably a function of population density/distribution, transportation networks, and the chaos associated with the concurrent civil war. Administrative responses to the epidemic likely had a variable, albeit limited, effect in the central lowlands. More peripheral cities, such as Aberdeen, while also employing sophisticated plague prevention measures, were perhaps initially spared simply due to their distance from the central plague belt. It is unclear if a general fear of the dead and contracting the Pest from plague victims can be used to characterise mid-17th century Scottish public opinion. Mass burial appears to have been a practical approach to the logistical problems mass mortality presented, while many instances of normative burial treatment can also be seen.

Exploring the Origins of Hexaploid Wheats: Typification of Archaeological Triticum vulgare var. antiquorum and Description of Modern Triticum sphaerococcum subsp. antiquorum (Poaceae: Triticeae)

This study addresses a critical issue in plant taxonomy and phylogeny: the relationship between archaeological materials and potentially analogous living populations. Given the current limitations in definitively establishing the identity between archaeological and contemporary materials, we propose an intermediate approach. This approach serves as a useful framework while scientific methods advance towards definitively assessing whether an archaeological wheat sample, approximately 5000 years old from Central Europe, belongs to the same species as a modern wheat currently endemic to Central Asia. This approach consolidates the taxonomic validity of both archaeological and living materials, allowing them to be treated as distinct taxa while preserving the possibility of future identification convergence. Triticum vulgare var. antiquorum, an archaeobotanical small-grained, free-threshing wheat, was originally described in 1865. The 1982 discovery of morphologically similar living wheat in Tajikistan raised questions about their taxonomic relationship. Our study reviews the nomenclature of both taxa, designating an illustration from the original description of T. vulgare var. antiquorum as the lectotype to align with the traditional concept of the name. We address the ambiguity surrounding “Triticum antiquorum” as used by Russian agronomists and botanists, proposing a more precise circumscription within the current systematic framework of the genus based on cytogenetic data. Consequently, we describe a new taxon, Triticum sphaerococcum subsp. antiquorum. The holotype, selected from material with available cytogenetic data and grown from Professor Udachin’s original Pamir (Tajikistan) collection, is preserved in the N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Institute of Plant Genetic Resources (WIR) collection. It is deposited at the I.M. Krasnoborov Herbarium of Central Siberian Botanical Garden SB RAS (NS), with an isotype at the WIR. This taxonomic revision and new subspecies designation provide a robust framework for reconciling archaeological and contemporary wheat diversity, advancing our understanding of wheat evolution and agricultural history.

Raman Spectroscopy Detects Bone Mineral Changes with Aging in Archaeological Human Lumbar Vertebrae from Thornton Abbey.

Archaeological human remains provide key insight into lifestyles, health, and diseases affecting past societies. However, only limited analyses can be conducted without causing damage due to the destructive nature of current technologies. The same problem exists with current clinical analyses of the skeleton, and the preferred advanced imaging techniques only provide macroscopic information. Raman spectroscopy could provide chemical information without detriment to archaeological bone samples and perhaps the need for invasive diagnostic procedures in the future. This study measured archaeological human vertebrae to investigate if chemical differences with aging were detectable with Raman spectroscopy and if differences in mineral chemistry could contribute to information on bone mineral diseases. The three lowest bones of the spine (lumbar vertebrae L3-L5), which are subject to the heaviest loading in life, of nine adults from three age groups (18-25, 25-45, and 45+ years) were provided by the Thornton Abbey Project. Three biomechanically important anatomical locations were selected for analysis; likely sites chosen to measure any chemical changes associated with aging, the vertebral body center and the zygapophyseal joints. Results detected chemical changes associated with aging. These changes relate to the minerals phosphate (∼960 cm-1) and carbonate (∼1070 cm-1), which are fundamental to bone function. Overall mineralization was found to increase with aging, but while carbonate increased with age, phosphate increased up to ∼45 years and then declined. These fluctuations were found in all three vertebrae, but were more distinct in L5, particularly in the vertebral body, indicating this is an optimal area for detecting bone mineral chemistry changes with aging. This is the first Raman analysis of bone samples from the historically significant site of Thornton Abbey. Results detected age-related changes, illustrating that ancient remains can be used to enhance understanding of modern diseases and provide information on the health and lifestyle of historic individuals.

Combining microscale ATR-FTIR and chemometrics to interpret degradation characteristics of earlywood, latewood, and compression wood in waterlogged archaeological pine wood

Interpreting the degradation characteristics of waterlogged archaeological wood (WAW) is crucial for the conservation of wooden cultural heritage. Generally, multidisciplinary diagnostic methods, including physical, micromorphological, and chemical approaches, are employed to evaluate the preservation state of WAW. However, primarily focused on the sample level, this methodology limits the understanding of the variability in degradation from a detailed perspective. In this paper, we adopted the in-situ microscale attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) method to investigate the degradation variability in waterlogged archaeological Masson pine (Pinus massoniana) wood excavated from the ancient Chinese shipwreck Nanhai No. 1. Specifically, spectra of earlywood (EW), latewood (LW), and compression wood (CW) were extracted and combined with chemometrics to achieve rapid classification of their degradation levels. The micromorphological features of wood cell walls in conjunction with the ratios of lignin (A1509) and carbohydrate (A1370) peak areas were used to estimate the degradation levels. Unlike recent wood, moderate degradation in CW and severe degradation in EW and LW were classified in archaeological samples. The degradation levels were effectively determined through principal component analysis (PCA) and sparse partial least squares discriminant analysis (sPLSDA). The results suggest that chemometric analysis is a promising method to discern the variable degradation levels of archaeological wood at the tissue level. The methodologies developed in this study provide detailed insights into the degradation characteristics in WAW and improve the accuracy of evaluating the preservation state.

Soil Bacteria in Archaeology: What Could Rank Abundance Functions Tell Us About Ancient Human Impacts on Microbial Communities?

Metagenomic analysis of soil bacterial communities based on 16S rRNA reflects a typical community composition containing a low number of high-abundance types and a very high number of low-abundance types. Here, the formation of characteristic rank order functions of bacterial abundance is investigated by modelling the dynamics of soil bacterial communities, assuming a succession of different bacterial populations that grow rapidly and decay more slowly. We found that the characteristic shape of typical rank order functions is well reflected by simulations. In addition, our model allowed us to investigate strong disturbances in the soil, which could be expected in cases of strongly changing local environmental conditions in soil, e.g., after translocation and covering of soil material. Such events could lead to the formation of shoulders in the rank order functions. Abundance rank orders observed in cases of some archaeological soil samples do indeed show such a shoulder and could be well interpreted by simulated rank order functions. As a result, it can be concluded that the investigations herein support our hypothesis that abundance rank orders contain information about the temporal order of developing bacterial types in changing communities and thus store information about local environmental conditions in the past, including ancient humans’ impact on soil. This information can be used for interpretation of archeological findings and for reconstruction of different former human activities, as well as knowledge on the translocation of soil material in the past.

Exploitation of Mining Resources in El Argar Culture: Bronze Age Metallurgy in the Hinterland of the Western Betic Cordillera (Southeastern Iberian Peninsula)

ABSTRACTThis research addresses the territorial organisation of metallurgical production during the El Argar Bronze Age (2200–1550 cal bc) in the inner areas of El Argar territory through lead‐isotope and trace element analyses of geological copper ores, archaeometallurgical remains and copper‐based artefacts. Results from 31 mineral and 35 archaeological samples suggest that the exploitation of copper resources in the studied region was significant and had a similar impact than other mining districts of El Argar territory. This, therefore, leads the hierarchical and centralised production model to be questioned. It also appears that the copper ore deposits in the coastal regions that were intensively exploited during the Copper Age were used less intensively in the El Argar period. At that time, copper was mostly procured from ore deposits in the inland areas of El Argar territory: that is, ore deposits within the Alpine orogeny hinterland (inland areas of the Betic Cordillera, from Granada to Baza). Other artefacts were sourced from outside the Alpine geological domain, but still on the fringe of El Argar territory (the foothills of the Sierra Morena‐Linares mining district) or even from ore deposits definitely outside El Argar territory itself (the Los Pedroches Variscan region and elsewhere).

Neutron tomography and image registration methods to study local physical deformations and attenuation variations in treated archaeological iron nail samples

This study presents a preliminary examination of the effects of environment changes post-excavation on heavily corroded archaeological Roman iron nails using neutron tomography and image registration techniques. Roman nails were exposed to either a high relative humidity environment, or fast thermal drying as primary experiments to show the power of this imaging technique to monitor and quantify the structural changes of corroded metal artifacts. This research employed a series of pre- and post-treatment tomography acquisitions (time-series) complemented by advanced image registration methods. Based on mutual information (MI) metrics, we performed rigid body and affine image registrations to meticulously account for sample repositioning challenges and variations in imaging parameters. Using non-affine local registration results, in a second step, we detected localized expansion and shrinkage in the samples attributable to imposed environmental changes. Specifically, we observed local shrinkage on the nail that was dried, mostly in their Transformed Medium (TM), the outer layer where corrosion products are cementing soil and sand particles. Conversely, the sample subjected to high relative humidity environment exhibited localized expansion, with varying degrees of change across different regions. This work highlights the efficacy of our registration techniques in accommodating manual removal or loss of extraneous material (loosely adhering soil and TM layers around the nails) post-initial tomography, successfully capturing local structural changes with high precision. Using differential analysis on the accurately registered samples we could also detect and volumetrically quantify the variation in moisture and detect changes in active corrosion sites (ACS) in the sample. These preliminary experiments allowed us to advance and optimize the application of a neutron tomography and image registration workflow for future, more advanced experiments such as humidity fluctuations, corrosion removal through micro-blasting, dechlorination and other stabilization treatments.

Preliminary investigation of the local marine reservoir effect in port JOLI harbour, NOVA scotia using archaeological M. arenaria shells

Port Joli Harbour, situated on the southwest coast of the maritime province of Nova Scotia, Canada, has the highest density of shell midden deposits in Atlantic Canada. The terrestrial radiocarbon chronology points to continuous human occupation of the harbour from 1685 cal yr BP to 250 cal yr BP. Despite the abundance of the soft-shell clams Mya arenaria at shell midden sites throughout the harbour they have not been incorporated into the chronology, nor have they been used to study the local marine reservoir effect in the harbour. We report 12 new 14C measurements on archived Mya arenaria from the same depositional contexts as previously dated charcoal and terrestrial mammal bone samples from two shell middens in Port Joli Harbour. From these shell-charcoal and shell-bone pairs, we present preliminary calculations of local marine reservoir corrections (ΔR) for the harbour. The ΔR values are highly variable and are overall more positive than the pre-bomb values reported for the Scotian Shelf. The variability of these values highlights the challenges in calculating ΔR values from archived archaeological samples but also the opportunities to include high-resolution analysis of ΔR variations in discussions on human-environment interactions in coastal settings during the late Holocene. We suggest that the chondrophore may be more favourable for calculating first order estimates of ΔR to be used in future archaeological calibrations, while high resolution analysis of the ventral margin region is useful for climate reconstructions. We recommend that more 14C measurements from M. arenaria shells be obtained from either distinct features or rapidly deposited middens in Port Joli Harbour. A suite of temporally and geographically precise ΔR values for the harbour will not only allow for the study of middens that are at risk of coastal erosion and lack charcoal for 14C dating but will also allow for the reconstruction of past climate conditions and refine our understanding of late Holocene human-environment interactions in the North Atlantic.

Insights into archaeological and modern neotropical biomes: Examining diet and shape variation through white-tailed deer lower third molar

The white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimmermann 1780) holds significant ecological importance across the Americas, both historically and in modern times. This species ranges from southern Canada to Brazil and exhibits polytypic characteristics, adapting well to diverse habitats including temperate, subtropical, semi-arid, rainforest, and savanna environments. In paleontology and archaeology, the comparison of dental characteristics between extant mammal species with known diets is commonly employed to infer the feeding behaviors of their ancient counterparts. This method assumes that extant and fossil species share similar dietary preferences, aiding in the identification of past environmental contexts. Consequently, we employed a multiproxy approach, combining the study of dental wear and 2D geometric morphometrics, to investigate potential relationships between molar shape, diet, and biomes among extant white-tailed deer populations across the Americas. Our analysis included a comparison with archaeological data from Panama. We sampled 274 extant lower second molar specimens for micro- and mesowear analysis, along with 105 lower third molar specimens from natural science museums for 2D geometric morphometric analysis. These were compared with a sample of 65 archaeological specimens from Panama. Our findings revealed distinct variations in the shape of lower m3 molars among extant white-tailed deer populations across different biomes, with notable differences observed in the archaeological samples as well. Micro- and mesowear analyses also indicated biome-related differences, suggesting a general browsing diet for white-tailed deer with nuanced variations across biomes. Mesowear analysis further suggested a dietary spectrum ranging from pure browsers to browser-mixed feeders. These findings offer valuable insights for the interpretation of fossil deer specimens recovered from archaeological sites.

An analytical study of the tabia mortar from Lin Yimu’s tomb, Zhejiang, China

The Lin Yimu’s tomb in Zhejiang Province, China, is a significant Qing Dynasty tabia structure that, despite relatively good preservation, has suffered damage from weathering, necessitating urgent restoration. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive scientific analysis of archaeological samples from the tabia of Lin Yimu’s tomb, employing a range of analytical techniques including X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), chemical methods, and measurements of hardness and strength. Analytical results revealed that the main phases of the sample are calcite, quartz, illite/mica, feldspar, with a minor presence of Tung oil. The proportion of calcium carbonate is approximately 27%, and the ratio of earth to sand is 1:2, suggesting a raw material formula mass ratio of lime-earth-sand of 3:4:8. The surface hardness of the sample is measured at 293 ± 15 HL, with a compressive strength of 5.5 ± 0.2 MPa. The sand used in the raw material has a medium particle size of 250 μm, while earth particles are predominantly around 17 μm. The sample exhibits a porosity of 27.5%, with pore sizes concentrated at 95 nm. These findings contribute significantly to our understanding of Qing dynasty tomb construction technologies and provide a solid scientific basis for the restoration of such historical sites.

Evaluating cross‐sectional geometry‐based methodologies on an archaeological and historical sample

Evaluating cross‐sectional geometry‐based methodologies on an archaeological and historical sample

Familial hypodontia in bronze age Northwest China (1046–771BC)

ObjectiveThis research aimed to report hypodontia cases in a Middle Bronze Age high-tier cemetery in China and test the possible hereditary behind hypodontia by performing kinship tests on those individuals. DesignIn this study, dental anomalies were observed on a human skeletal sample (n = 45) uncovered from Yaoheyuan, China. Ancient DNA analysis was subsequently employed on a subsample of the Yaoheyuan individuals (n = 15), including individuals observed hypodontia and individuals randomly sampled from the cemetery for preliminary investigation on the cemetery demography. Kinship estimation tests (READ, TKGWV2, KIN, and F3 test) were subsequently employed. ResultsThe Yaoheyuan elite population had a prevalence (n = 7, 15 %) of tooth agenesis in either the maxilla or mandible, with one to two teeth missing. All missing teeth were incisors, except for one individual missing maxillary second molar. Preliminary ancient DNA results indicate that several kinship groups existed among interred individuals, including those with hypodontia, indicating the hereditary origin of these cases. ConclusionsThe prevalence of hypodontia observed on site is high compared to that in both modern East Asian populations and archaeological samples in the Chinese population. The preliminary kinship analysis suggests a case of familial hypodontia. Ancient DNA analysis should be thoroughly conducted in future studies to understand the genetic markers contributing to those hypodontia cases among the Yaoheyuan individuals.

Multispectral investigation of natural resins.

Resins have been used as remedies since ancient times and various embalming resins have been identified in recent years. In Europe, Mumia vera aegyptiaca, a resinous substance from ancient Egyptian mummies, was even sold in pharmacies as a tonic until the early 20th century. It is difficult to examine the composition of these archeological samples in detail as the well-established analytical techniques, that is, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry or liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry, are destructive and therefore do not allow the analysis of valuable archeological samples. Hence, there is an urgent need for alternative, nondestructive methods for the identification of resin residues. This study aims to explore and compare the use of five spectroscopic methods as an alternative to established analytical procedures. For that, 15 resin samples of known origin and three samples from an Egyptian market were studied. While laser induced-breakdown spectroscopy and terahertz time-domain spectroscopy provide only limited information for resin classification, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy can be used to classify the resin samples more accurately. Furthermore, photoluminescence/photoluminescence excitation spectroscopy shows a promising potential in combination with its general advantages, such as cost-efficiency, nondestructive nature, and fast data acquisition.

Microbial dynamics, chemical profile, and bioactive potential of diverse Egyptian marine environments from archaeological wood to soda lake

Halophilic archaea are a unique group of microorganisms that thrive in high–salt environments, exhibiting remarkable adaptations to survive extreme conditions. Archaeological wood and El–Hamra Lake serve as a substrate for a diverse range of microorganisms, including archaea, although the exact role of archaea in archaeological wood biodeterioration remains unclear. The morphological and chemical characterizations of archaeological wood were evaluated using FTIR, SEM, and EDX. The degradation of polysaccharides was identified in Fourier transform infrared analysis (FTIR). The degradation of wood was observed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The energy dispersive X–ray spectroscopy (EDX) revealed the inclusion of minerals, such as calcium, silicon, iron, and sulfur, into archaeological wood structure during burial and subsequent interaction with the surrounding environment. Archaea may also be associated with detected silica in archaeological wood since several organosilicon compounds have been found in the crude extracts of archaeal cells. Archaeal species were isolated from water and sediment samples from various sites in El–Hamra Lake and identified as Natronococcus sp. strain WNHS2, Natrialba hulunbeirensisstrain WNHS14, Natrialba chahannaoensis strain WNHS9, and Natronococcus occultus strain WNHS5. Additionally, three archaeal isolates were obtained from archaeological wood samples and identified as Natrialba chahannaoensisstrain W15, Natrialba chahannaoensisstrain W22, and Natrialba chahannaoensisstrain W24. These archaeal isolates exhibited haloalkaliphilic characteristics since they could thrive in environments with high salinity and alkalinity. Crude extracts of archaeal cells were analyzed for the organic compounds using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). A total of 59 compounds were identified, including free saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, saturated fatty acid esters, ethyl and methyl esters of unsaturated fatty acids, glycerides, phthalic acid esters, organosiloxane, terpene, alkane, alcohol, ketone, aldehyde, ester, ether, and aromatic compounds. Several organic compounds exhibited promising biological activities. FTIR spectroscopy revealed the presence of various functional groups, such as hydroxyl, carboxylate, siloxane, trimethylsilyl, and long acyl chains in the archaeal extracts. Furthermore, the archaeal extracts exhibited antioxidant effects. This study demonstrates the potential of archaeal extracts as a valuable source of bioactive compounds with pharmaceutical and biomedical applications.

Use of Proteomics for Dietary Reconstruction: A Case Study Using Animal Teeth from Ancient Mesopotamia.

This research examines animal teeth from Early Dynastic (2900-2350 BCE) Mesopotamia (Southern Iraq) to assess animal management practices and identify consumption patterns in animal diets. The objective to answer larger questions about food management and environmental resilience in ancient early complex societies in the Near East was achieved by the use of mass spectrometry-based proteomics for dietary reconstruction. Dietary MS, a revolutionary new methodology applying proteomics techniques to archeological sample sets to reconstruct ancient animal diet. A developed protein extraction technique followed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry allowed for the identification of the specific plant species consumed in order to highlight variable herd management strategies, resource optimization, for each taxon over time. It also provided information about overall health and indications of disease. This is the first study to apply a full suite of analyses to the region and provides the foundations of a necessary long-term view of human interaction within an environment, through both time and space.

Analysis and comparison of tooth wear in late antiquity and early middle age in populations that lived in continental and coastal Croatia using digitized VistaMetrix method.

Tooth wear is a non-pathological loss of hard tissues on the incisal and occlusal tooth surface. In archaeology, the loss of dental tissue through attrition is associated with living opportunities and habits, availability, characteristics and methods of food preparation. In forensics, tooth wear is used to estimate the dental age on cadavers. For this study, we used an archaeological sample from two sample collections. In this study, tooth wear was compared in archaeological samples of well-preserved maxilla and mandible specimens (n=392) from Croatian coastal and continental populations from Late Antiquity (LA) and the Early Middle Ages (EMA). The computer system VistaMetrix 1.38 was used to analyse the abrasion and attrition of hard dental tissues. The Shapiro-Wilk and chi-square tests were performed for categorical data to test the difference between two historical periods and two geographical locations, while the Kruskal-Wallis test was performed for continuous data. There was a statistically significant difference in the proportion of tooth wear in total teeth area (P < 0.001) when comparing continental and coastal Croatia in LA and coastal Croatia between LA and EMA (P = 0.006 and P < 0.001, respectively). Samples from coastal Croatia from the LA period had the lowest percentage of tooth wear with a median of 8.35%, while samples from coastal Croatia from the EMA had the highest percentage of tooth wear with a median of 18.26%. Our results generally show greater tooth wear in the EMA period in male subjects. The results of the tooth wear research obtained with the Vista Metrix software can contribute to the study of life circumstances and changes that the analysed population has experienced in its historical development.

Rethinking Wear Rate Analysis: a New Dentin Exposure Proxy and its Applications to Ancient Chinese Populations

Assessing age through dentin exposure often leads to underestimated age due to assumptions of constant molar wear rate. New methods for age-related dentin exposure accrual could facilitate cross-population comparisons independent of dietary habits and sociocultural strategies. We analyzed 3D dentin exposure surfaces in four Chinese archaeological samples to reveal variations in dentin exposure rates linked to socioeconomic practices. Linear regression models of dentin exposure areas across molar rows showed significant correlations, with the first molars exhibiting steeper slopes and smaller intercepts compared to the second molars, which had intermediate values, and the third molars showing the highest intercepts and lowest slopes. The first molar contributed most to overall dentin exposure in the molar quadrant, while the second molar wore faster post-eruption. Among populations, Banlashan, predominantly agriculturalist; Houtaomuga, focused on fishing; and Jiayi, a nomadic hunting society, displayed similar wear rate patterns. In contrast, Dunping, a Bronze Age nomadic settlement situated on a high-altitude plateau, exhibited distinctively lower wear rates. These observed dentin exposure rates aligned with ecological and dietary constraints, enabling interpopulation comparisons using the proposed 3D dentin exposure proxy. Moreover, the statistical model allows for comparing wear rates across populations relative to dietary habits and potentially estimating age at death for isolated archaeological specimens, whether humans or animals. The precision of this physiological age estimation depends on the regression models used, necessitating further research with specimens of known age at death.

A label-free quantification method for assessing sex from modern and ancient bovine tooth enamel

Identification of the sex of modern, fossil and archaeological animal remains offers many insights into their demography, mortality profiles and domestication pathways. However, due to many-factors, sex determination of osteological remains is often problematic. To overcome this, we have developed an innovative protocol to determine an animal’s sex from tooth enamel, by applying label-free quantification (LFQ) of two unique AmelY peptides ‘LRYPYP’ (AmelY;[M+2]2+\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$^{2+}$$\\end{document} 404.7212 m/z) and ‘LRYPYPSY’ (AmelY;[M+2]2+\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$^{2+}$$\\end{document} 529.7689 m/z) that are only present in the enamel of males. We applied this method to eight modern cattle (Bos taurus) of known sex, and correctly assigned them to sex. We then applied the same protocol to twelve archaeological Bos teeth from the Neolithic site of Beisamoun, Israel (8-th–7-th millennium BC) and determined the sex of the archaeological samples. Since teeth are usually better preserved than bones, this innovative protocol has potential to facilitate sex determination in ancient and modern bovine remains that currently cannot be sexed.

Osteological age-at-death estimation in an archaeological sample avoiding age-mimicry: a six-step approach

In human osteoarchaeology, individual age-at-death is traditionally assigned by scoring characteristic expressions of specific traits and applying formulas or algorithms. However, it is well known that the resulting age estimates in target samples suffer from bias due to the effect of age-mimicry, both at the individual and at the population level. A general statistical methodology to obtain unbiased estimates of the age-at-death distribution in skeletal samples has been available for more than two decades. Even so, the procedure is rarely used. This may be related to the fact that this methodology requires external input which has selection of distributional characteristics to be reported. In this paper, we translate the general methodology into a clearly stated six-step procedure to be followed. We illustrate the six steps using an archaeological sample of 675 adult individuals and 15 scoring methods from traditional age-estimation procedures. By clearly identifying the actions that are necessary for its application we intend to make the approach more accessible for osteoarchaeologists while at the same time highlighting some challenges that need to be addressed in the future. Our study demonstrates that the approach is feasible and illustrates the absence of age-mimicry. A combined analysis of five informative traits allowed to obtain estimates of several characteristics of the target sample age distribution. However, its routine use will benefit from improved input from relevant reference samples and improved statistical software.