Archaeological Evidence Research Articles

The AD 536/540 climate event in Sweden – a review

The middle of the first millennium AD in Sweden witnessed significant changes in the archaeological record, prompting various discussions about the underlying causes. This paper reviews the research developments surrounding the global climate cooling, which was caused by severe volcanic eruptions in AD 536/540 and is referred to as the Late Antique Little Ice Age or Fimbulwinter, and its potential impacts, with a specific focus on Swedish Iron Age societies, drawing upon published climatic and archaeological data. Furthermore, it discusses the research gaps that impede a comprehensive understanding of the potential relationship between the AD 536/540 event and socioeconomic changes in Iron Age Sweden. Additionally, it suggests that isotopic analysis will offer additional insights and help bridge the research gap.

Deep antiquity of seagrasses supporting European eel fisheries in the western Baltic.

Protecting ocean habitats is critical for international efforts to mitigate climate impacts and ensure food security, but the ecological data upon which policy makers base conservation and restoration targets often reflect ecosystems that have already been deeply impacted by anthropogenic change. The archaeological record is a biomolecular archive offering a temporal scope that cannot be gathered from historical records or contemporary fieldwork. Insights from biogeochemical and osteometric analyses of fish bones, combined with context from contemporary field studies, show how prehistoric fisheries in the western Baltic relied on seagrass meadows. European eels (Anguilla anguilla) harvested by Mesolithic and Neolithic peoples over millennia showed a strong fidelity for eelgrass foraging habitats, an ecological relationship that remains largely overlooked today, demonstrating the value of protecting these habitats. These data open new windows onto ecosystem- and species-level behaviours, highlighting the need for wider incorporation of archaeological data in strategies for protecting our oceans.

Millukmungee 1: Stone artefacts and occupation at the junction of the Buchan and Snowy Rivers, GunaiKurnai Country, East Gippsland (Victoria, Australia)

Recent excavations at Millukmungee 1, a limestone rock shelter along the upper bank of the Buchan River in GunaiKurnai Country (southeastern Australia), uncovered archaeological evidence of Mid- to Late Holocene occupation spanning c. 5000 years. Here we report on the stone artefacts and faunal remains, especially in light of a paucity of published details on artefact types and technologies for this part of southeast Australia. Results indicate that this part of the site was occupied only rarely from 5590–5050 cal BP (the uncertainty range for the oldest artefact from the excavation) to 2340–2030 cal BP. During this period, most of the artefacts were made from silcrete, quartz, chert, and quartzite. Small backed artefacts are present during this phase, all dating between 4570–1940 cal BP. A single, much larger backed artefact (elouera) dates to later, ≤290 cal BP. After 1960 cal BP, activities focussed on the production of flakes from locally available quartz and, to a lesser extent, hornfels; large pebbles obtained from the nearby Buchan River channel were flaked during this period. Occupation ceased with the onset of settler colonialism in the mid-1800s CE.

26Al/10Be burial dating and technological strategies of hominins at the Jijiazhuang Paleolithic site, Nihewan Basin, China: Implications for understanding Middle Pleistocene human adaptations in east Asia

With the discovery of more than a hundred Pleistocene Paleolithic sites, the Nihewan Basin of North China has become an area of reference for the study of human evolution and behavioral adaptations during and after the spread of hominins out of Africa and into Eurasia. However, most research has focused on the Early and Late Pleistocene archaeological record, whereas studies of the Middle Pleistocene sequence are relatively limited. Here we contribute to fill this gap by introducing the archaeological assemblage and 26Al/10Be burial dating of the newly discovered Jijiazhuang (JJZ) Paleolithic site. Systematic excavations in recent years have yielded well-preserved stone artifacts and mammalian fossils in fluvio-lacustrine sediments at the site. Cosmogenic 26Al/10Be burial dating indicates that hominins occupied the site between 0.49 ± 0.10 and 0.63 ± 0.11 Ma, corresponding to the extra-long interglacial period of MIS 15-13. The JJZ lithic assemblage shows evidence of relatively long-distance resource procurement, and the increased number of retouched tools indicate standardized, extensive and refined modification, even shaping strategies. The JJZ lithic technology shows advanced features that may shed light on the regional emergence of Middle Paleolithic technologies, in a paleoecological context where the extra-long duration of interglacial/mild stadial climate events (MIS 15−13) may have provided favorable conditions for increased technological capabilities among Middle Pleistocene hominins from the Nihewan Basin. Our study is the first to present a detailed techno-typological analysis of a Middle Pleistocene lithic assemblage in the Nihewan Basin and contributes to the characterization of technological adaptions in the high latitudes of East Asia.

Living on the edge: Abric Pizarro, a MIS 4 Neanderthal site in the lowermost foothills of the southeastern Pre-Pyrenees (Lleida, Iberian Peninsula)

Extensive research carried out during the last 30 years in the lowermost foothills of the Southern Pyrenees has revealed the significance of this area for studying Neanderthal lifestyle and settlement histories in the Iberian Peninsula. With a large number of cave and rock shelter sites, broad-ranging chronologies, and relatively well-known sedimentation rates and environmental conditions, this enclave continues to improve our knowledge about Neanderthal behaviour in Western Europe.Here we present the chronostratigraphic, technological, faunal, and palaeoenvironmental results from Abric Pizarro, a recently discovered site from the region. Its archaeological sequence is centred on MIS 4, a poorly known period in Neanderthal history. The application of three different dating methods (newly obtained single-grain optically stimulated luminescence and U-series fossil teeth ages, in addition to previously published thermoluminescence ages) provides an accurate chronology for a site where the exceptional preservation of faunal remains leads to significant interpretations of Neanderthal hunting abilities and adaptability. Moreover, analysis of the lithic assemblage, as well as preliminary palaeoenvironmental data, are used to provide insights into the degree to which chronocultural or palaeoenvironmental factors were responsible for some of the significant differences observed among the four archaeological units explored in Abric Pizarro to date. Our results contribute to discussion about Neanderthal resilience and their livelihood before their disappearance from the archaeological record.

The 4.2 ka BP event in western Anatolia: Tracing the impact of climatic change

Climatic change has been called for as an explanation on many occasions of societal change. The way climatic deterioration affects societies appears to be straightforward; it causes such alterations in the environment that critical subsistence resources are not anymore available in sufficient abundance. Nevertheless, it is not clear how these alterations can be identified and verified in the archeological record, and there is not an easy way to clarify if modifications observed in subsistence patterns are the consequences of climatic change or other agents. Additionally, there is a number of problems related to paleoenvironmental data that measure the climatic fluctuations, mostly concerning the exact timing of events and their intensity which may not have been the same universally. In this research, we examine the 4.2 ka BP climatic event and its possible effects on western Anatolian societies through a set of published data. We discuss the information we have about the event from available paleoenvironmental data and the gaps in this kind of research. We examine the agropastoral economy from Troy, Küllüoba, Kanlıgeçit, and Karataş-Semayük for possible changes according to a set of criteria that we consider as indicators of responses to aridification. We found diverging strategies that may relate to the different local environments or varying societal structures unique to each site. We consider a partial turn to nomadic pastoralism as an adaptation strategy based on changes in settlement patterns. Finally, we evaluate our findings against other possible explanations since the observed patterns could have had multiple explanations.

Pleistocene archaeology and environments of the Free State, South Africa

ABSTRACT Pleistocene climate variability is often seen as a major cause of much of the evidence observed in the archaeological and palaeontological record of Africa. While continent-wide climate systems play an important role when testing pan-African human evolutionary processes, a more focused perspective centred on specific ecosystems at a regional level allows a detailed assessment of the different spatiotemporal scales of the proxies used to reconstruct past environments and the ways humans adapted to their change over time. Recent research in the arid interior of South Africa has provided insights into the availability of freshwater in the open landscape, which is a fundamental factor for human survival and the spatiotemporal distribution of which may have had a major influence on adaptive strategies. This article reviews the Pleistocene archaeological and environmental evidence of the Free State province of South Africa, which has produced major localities such as Cornelia-Uitzoek, Florisbad and Rose Cottage Cave, with the aim of providing a starting point for the discussion over freshwater availability with regard to southern Africa’s Grassland Biome. Particular emphasis is given to the description of multi-proxy approaches including the analysis of sediments, faunal remains, enamel stable isotopes, pollens and phytoliths and absolute dating based on trapped-charge methods. The picture that emerges highlights the paucity of Pleistocene datasets in the Free State and the necessity to expand research at open-air sites and improve the chronological resolution of human occupations and palaeoenvironmental proxies.

Long shared haplotypes identify the Southern Urals as a primary source for the 10th century Hungarians.

During the Hungarian Conquest in the 10th century CE, the early medieval Magyars, a group of mounted warriors from Eastern Europe, settled in the Carpathian Basin. They likely introduced the Hungarian language to this new settlement area, during an event documented by both written sources and archaeological evidence. Previous archaeogenetic research identified the newcomers as migrants from the Eurasian steppe. However, genome-wide ancient DNA from putative source populations has not been available to test alternative theories of their precise source. We generated genome-wide ancient DNA data for 131 individuals from candidate archaeological contexts in the Circum-Uralic region in present-day Russia. Our results tightly link the Magyars to people of the Early Medieval Karayakupovo archaeological horizon on both the European and Asian sides of the southern Urals. Our analyes show that ancestors of the people of the Karayakupovo archaeological horizon were established in the Southern Urals by the Iron Age and that their descendants persisted locally in the Volga-Kama region until at least the 14th century.

The Effects of Different Seed Rates on Yield and Economical Feasibility of Mustard (Brassica juncea)

Rapeseed-mustard plant (Brassica juncea)” is any one of several plant species in the genera Brassica, Rhamphospermum and Sinapis in the family Brassicaceae (the mustard family). Mustard seed is used as a spice. Grinding and mixing the seeds with water, vinegar, or other liquids creates the yellow condiment known as prepared mustard. The seeds can also be pressed to make mustard oil, and the edible leaves can be eaten as mustard greens. Many vegetables are cultivated varieties of mustard plants; domestication may have begun 6,000 years ago. Mustard is a popular condiment, commonly it is a popular condiment made from the seeds of the mustard plant. It can be prepared using white/yellow mustard, brown mustard, or black mustard seeds mixed with liquids, salt, and other flavorings to create a paste or sauce. Mustard pairs well with meats, vegetables, and cheeses and is commonly used in sandwiches, hamburgers, and hot dogs. It is also used in dressings, glazes, sauces, and marinades around the world. The word "mustard" has origins in Latin and French, and archaeological evidence suggests mustard cultivation dates back to ancient civilizations like the Indus Valley. Mustard has a long history of culinary use, with the Romans likely being the first to experiment with mustard as a condiment. In France, Dijon became a renowned center for mustard making, and Dijon mustard is still highly regarded today. Mustard has various uses, such as a condiment, an ingredient in sauces and soups, and an emulsifier in dishes like Hollandaise sauce. The flavor and heat of mustard depend on the seed type and preparation method. Mustard offers nutritional benefits such as vitamins, minerals, and omega-3 fatty acids. Mustard plants is used for producing edible oil for human, oil-cake for feeding animals, sauce, spices, medicine and other purposes in Afghanistan. Mustard has a long history in Afghanistan and is mostly cultivated in the Northern provinces such as Baghlan, Kunduz, Thakkar, Samangan and etc. For the above-mentioned importance of Mustard, we decided to apply a research on seed rates to fine the desirable seed rate of mustard crop for Afghan Mustard growers. Seed rates are one of the important factors, which the suitable seed rates prevent from the economic loss of farmers. This research accomplished in the title of “The effects of different seed rates on yield and growth components of mustard (Brassica juncea)” The research was designed in a complete block design (RCBD) with three replications and five treatments. The data were collected from growth parameters such as plant height, number branches plant-1, number of leaves plant-1 as well as yield parameters such as number of pods plan-1, number of seeds plant-1, seed yield kg ha-1, dry matter kg ha-1 and biological yield kg ha-1. The collected data were analyzed using excel, OPSTAT online testing program, statistical tool for agricultural research (STAR). Based on the statistical analysis the significant differences were observed in all parameters at (P≥0.05. Least significant difference (LSD) was used to compare treatments. A positive correlation was also recognized between growth and yield parameters. Mostly treatment three (15 cm) space between rows performed high influence then the other treatments. We recommend much more research to find the best space between plant to plant and row to row. For the moment the farmers of Afghanistan can use the result of this research on their field for obtaining high yield from Mustard.

The roman saltworks of the Atlantic coast of Gallaecia: Traces and evidence of a large sea salt production complex

Judging by the numerous references to its many uses and applications in the literary sources, salt was a precious commodity in Antiquity. However, the archaeological traces of sea salt production are rather scarce with only a few known sites throughout the Mediterranean preserving remains of ancient salinae. In the Roman Empire as a whole, it is the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula that has provided the greatest amount of direct evidence of sea salt production. After analysing the archaeological evidence documented in excavations and field surveys conducted during the past 10 years, this paper describes the Roman salt landscapes on the Atlantic coast of ancient Gallaecia, the distribution of evidence, and the chronological indicators allowing to date them to the Roman Imperial period. The legal and tax system determining the forms of ownership and labour organization of saltworks is also examined. In light of the results, it is possible to conclude that on the northwest Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula there was a major sea salt and fish salting production network which had a direct impact on the socioeconomic structure of provincial society.

A Multi-analytical Characterization of Minerals on Hohokam Palettes

Stone palettes are a unique artifact of Hohokam culture. Discovery of lead minerals on these palettes dates back to the 1930s, however there has been little chemical analysis of these minerals. This research presents the result of a multi-analytical survey on the accretions of nearly 200 palettes to develop a better understanding of occurrence of lead minerals and isotopic characterization to address questions of sourcing, procurement and mineral exchange. We found consistent association of lead minerals regardless of context, region, and time period, suggesting lead minerals are related to a primary use of palettes. We also propose an alternate theory to one potential function of palettes – that they were used to prepare paint applied to the body or other materials that did not survive in the archaeological record. We propose that the lead silicate identified on some palettes is not intentionally formed, but rather due to post depositional processes.

A 47,000 year archaeological and palaeoenvironmental record from Juukan 2 rockshelter on the western Hamersley Plateau of the Pilbara region, Western Australia

Archaeological and palaeoenvironmental investigations at Juukan 2 rockshelter have yielded new information on the ancient Aboriginal occupation of the Pilbara uplands in northwest Australia. Using multiple lines of evidence, including lithic, faunal, pollen, ancient DNA, radiocarbon dating, optically stimulated luminescence, and Bayesian chronological modelling, we show that Aboriginal people occupied the western Hamersley Plateau as early as 47,000 years ago (47 ka). Late Pleistocene populations utilised a diverse range of tool technologies, including bone points, grindstones, and flaked stone artefacts. Palaeoclimatic conditions at Juukan 2 rockshelter varied greatly over the past 47 ka, with repeated site visits by people, including during the peak hyper-arid phase of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) c. 21 ± 2 ka. Ancient starch analyses of the ground stone artefacts show the processing of Ipomoea (Bush Potato) from around 42 ka to the present day. Pronounced increases in the discard of stone artefacts and bone in the last 3500 years are interpreted to be the result of increased frequency of site use. A braided hair fragment dated to this period has demonstrated genetic links between the earlier rockshelter occupants and contemporary Puutu Kunti Kurrama and Pinikura peoples, who have maintained strong cultural connections to the area.

Tool skill impacts the archaeological evidence across technological primates

The archaeological record offers insights into our evolutionary past by revealing ancient behaviour through stone and fossil remains. Percussive foraging is suggested to be particularly relevant for the emergence of tool-use in our lineage, yet early hominin percussive behaviours remain largely understudied compared to flaked technology. Stone tool-use of extant primates allows the simultaneous investigation of their artefacts and the associated behaviours. This is important for understanding the development of tool surface modification, and crucial for interpreting damage patterns in the archaeological record. Here, we compare the behaviour and the resulting material record across stone tool-using primates. We investigate the relationship of nut-cracking technique and stone tool modification across chimpanzees, capuchins, and long-tailed macaques by conducting standardized field experiments with comparable raw materials. We show that different techniques likely emerged in response to diverse nut hardness, leading to variation in foraging success across species. Our experiments further demonstrate a correlation between techniques and the intensity of visible percussive damage on the tools. Tools used with more precision and efficiency as demonstrated by macaques, show fewer use wear traces. This suggests that some percussive techniques may be less readily identified in the archaeological record.

More than floors and domes – contexts around ovens in the late neolithic of the Central Balkans

Even though ovens are the most prominent feature in the Vinča culture houses, they have often been neglected in the archaeological publications. Usually, only the information about their location or number of floors is provided, but more detailed descriptions are missing. This is also influenced by their poor preservation in the archaeological record, as parts of their upper structure are often missing. But, although fully preserved ovens represent quite a rarity, contexts surrounding them are usually filled with different categories of artefacts and architectural features. These complex contexts that include ovens, offer plethora of information about different socio-economic phenomena in the Late Neolithic of the Central Balkans. Therefore, ovens should be perceived as more than just fire installations for food processing and house heating, as they can offer insight into household organization and symbolic aspects of the Neolithic life. Additionally, ovens located in the outdoor spaces can provide information about settlement organization and social dynamics on a larger scale. In this paper, different contexts around ovens are presented and interpreted – from functional, economic, social, and symbolic perspective.

When to generalise and when to specialise? Climate change and hominin biocultural adaptability in the African early and middle stone age

A growing number of authors have discussed the role of climate change in periods of important biological and cultural transition along the hominin lineage. This paper establishes a biocultural framework elucidating human behavioural adaptations during the African Early and Middle Stone Age, centred on three crucial dimensions of hunter-gatherer adaptation: mobility, social network dynamics, and technology. We contend that landscape properties, specifically resource diversity and seasonal to inter-annual resource variability, can be used to model the specific responses of hominin groups to climate change over time, based on their awareness of these properties. Specifically, we focus on hominin technological generalisation and specialisation, meaning the extent to which there is a high degree of specificity (or fit) between final tool form and the task(s) in which the tool is deployed.In this regard, we argue that the archaeological record reveals punctuated and discontinuous specialisation during certain phases of the Early Stone Age driven by landscape predictability. These periods encourage the expression of relevant innovations and stepwise increases in technological complexity. While some of them become lost to demographic or cultural stochasticity, others end up forming the basis for a standardisation of generalised forms within the context of unexpected climatic deterioration. This is highlighted by the late Acheulean: following a period of greater generalisation in the late Early Pleistocene correlating with repeated and severe orbitally-forced periods of aridity, smaller biface forms become more common (or absent) and regional experimentation with prepared-core technology in Eastern Africa takes place in the context of a return to more humid and stable climatic conditions. The onset of more arid and variable climates associated with the emergence of the Middle Stone Age led to the continental expansion of the prepared-core technological substrate underpinning generalised assemblages. The cycle continues in the Middle Stone Age with a return to climatic stability in the Late Pleistocene and subsequent regional diversification of this techno-complex, in which hominins responded with greater toolkit specialisation in a number of different ways. In this context, we support the existence of a cyclical and non-linear relationship between environmental adaptation and cognitive evolution, as part of a wider biocultural feedback loop, which contributes to explain the evolutionary roots of our “generalist specialist” niche.

Animal exploitation by the last hunter-gatherers in the Mediterranean Iberia. New data from the Mesolithic groups from Cocina cave (Valencia, Eastern Iberia)

Mesolithic groups in Mediterranean Iberia lived during a period of bioclimatic and cultural changes. Thus, their economic behaviour and the availability of plant and animal resources show some interesting variation compared to previous periods that indicate changes in mobility patterns and social connectivity networks. This paper presents information on patterns of animal exploitation of the last hunter-gatherers in this region through zooarchaeological and taphonomic analyses of faunal remains from one of the key sites of the Iberian Peninsular Mesolithic, Cocina cave. This site is located in a mountainous woodland region with a rich Late Mesolithic archaeological record. Results indicate that Iberian ibex, red deer, and rabbits were the most hunted species, but that a diversity of other taxa were also present. The comparison to other Mediterranean sites suggests that Late Mesolithic foragers had common animal exploitation patterns with an increased taxonomic diversification and a clear connection to coastal areas. We suggest these foragers practiced a logistic pattern of food procurement, combining long-term with short-term camps including hunting spots, and in some cases evidence for broad scale social interactions. We hypothesize that Cocina cave may have served as a nexus of social and subsistence activities.

Egyptian Art in Colonized Nubia: Representing Power and Social Structure in the New Kingdom Tombs of Djehutyhotep, Hekanefer and Pennut

Monumental rock-cut tombs decorated with wall paintings or reliefs were rare in New Kingdom colonial Nubia. Exceptions include the 18th Dynasty tombs of Djehutyhotep (Debeira) and Hekanefer (Miam), and the 20th Dynasty tomb of Pennut (Aniba). The three tombs present typical Egyptian artistic representations and inscriptions, which include tomb owners and their families, but also those living under their direct control. This paper compares the artistic and architectural features of these decorated, monumental rock-cut tombs in light of the archaeological record of the regions in which they were located in order to contextualize art within its social setting in colonized Nubia. More than expressing cultural and religious affiliations in the colony, art seems to have been essentially used as a tool to enforce hierarchization and power, and to define the borders of the uppermost elite social spaces in New Kingdom colonial Nubia.

The rise of urbanism and exchange network: reconstruction of a 4000-year local history of Xinjiang, northwestern China

Urbanization is one of the milestones in the development of human society. Many regions in the southern parts of ‘the old world’ demonstrating an early emergence of agriculture also witnessed the flourishing of some of the earliest cities. Recent, yet still sparse, archaeological evidence appears to indicate a relatively later time for early urbanism in central Eurasia. However, given its vital geographic location and cultural nexus between East and West, more attention should be paid to the sedentary communities and their cities in oases amid the vast droughty desert, particularly in light of the rapidly increasing number of publications on early pastoralism and related communication routes along mountain chains and rivers. This study reveals the trajectory of urbanization and its role in the establishment of an exchange network in Xinjiang’s oasis region via reconstruction of the chronological sequence of the local societal history of the Baiyang River Basin along the southern piedmont of the Eastern Tianshan Mountains. A thorough archaeological investigation and refined radiocarbon dating programme was carried out and coupled with information from historical documentation within a Bayesian statistical framework. The results indicate three pulses of local urbanization during: the Early Iron Age, Tang–Yuan period, and Qing Dynasty, respectively. Combining this with evidence from other parts of Xinjiang, we re-evaluate the role of oasis urbanism in the promotion of trans-regional exchange.

Leave no stone unturned: Exploring the metaproteome of beerstone for the identification of archaeological beer production

In archaeological contexts, identifying processes of beer production and consumption has contributed to our understanding of agriculture, labor mobilization, economic surplus, feasting, gender dynamics, social structure, tribute, community, identity and politics. Nevertheless, in the absence of pictorial representations and characteristic objects, beer brewing is difficult to identify in the archaeological record, and molecular methods are often limited by constraints of preservation and specificity. A potential target for studies of ancient beer production are residues formed during brewing activity, including beerstone, a calcium oxalate residue. Here, we apply shotgun proteomics analyses to a sample of modern beerstone to explore this residue's capacity as a marker for beer in archaeological contexts. The beerstone proteome was compared to the protein profiles of ungerminated and germinated barley to identify key proteins indicative of malted grains which may be encased by the residue. Proteins matching to barley grain (Hordeum vulgare) and Baker's/Brewer's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) were successfully identified in the beerstone. In particular, we identified hordeins, lipid transfer proteins, trypsin/α-amylase inhibitors, and protein Z, which are barley proteins abundant in proteomic characterisations of beer. In comparison to ungerminated and germinated barley grains, we find that beerstone preserves only a subset of the barley proteome, with the residue being more reflective of the final brewing product than of earlier brewing steps such as malting. Overall, we demonstrate that beerstone has potential to entrap and preserve proteins reflective of the beer-making process and identify proteins that we might anticipate in future archaeological analyses.

BLOWING IN THE WIND: THE SEASONALITY OF FORAGING IN LATE BRONZE AGE CRETE

SummaryMost foraging, especially for wild edible plants, is a seasonal occupation, impacted by weather in the short term and climate change in the long term. In Crete today, foraging not only supplements the diet but is a valued inter‐generational social activity. Foraging activities are not directly mentioned in the Late Bronze Age Linear B tablets from Crete, suggesting that most were the purview of non‐elites. Here I present evidence for changes in seasonality during the Late Bronze Age and its possible impact on plant foraging. The Linear B and archaeological evidence for foraging activity and its relationship to elites and non‐elites is also discussed.