Archaeological Populations Research Articles

How Does Social Inequality Alter Relationships Between Porous Cranial Lesions and Mortality? Examining the Relationship Between Skeletal Indicators of Stress, Socioeconomic Status, and Survivorship in a Pediatric Autopsy Sample.

In prior exploration of modern and archeological populations, lower SES has been associated with an increased risk of mortality. However, SES is often difficult to ascertain in archeological populations. Thus, explorations of skeletal lesions and their association with mortality may be subject to confounding factors that alter the strength and/or direction of this association. The present study uses data from a modern, documented coronial pediatric dataset to examine the association between porous cranial lesions (PCLs) (cribra orbitalia [CO] and porotic hyperostosis [PH]) and age at death while controlling for SES, as inferred through housing type, with manufactured or apartment housing identified as reflecting individuals from lower SES backgrounds in this context. We include 887 (535 males, 352 females) individuals aged 0.5-20.9 years from New Mexico who died between 2011 and 2022. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was used to assess survivorship as related to PCLs and SES. Low SES is associated with lower survivorship. CO does not have a significant association with age at death when not controlling for SES; PH alone is associated with older age at death. Disadvantaged individuals with PCLs have significantly reduced survivorship than those with higher SES. The findings of this study demonstrate that low SES results in reduced survivorship, and those with low SES and PCLs have worse survivorship than less disadvantaged individuals with PCLs. Thus, the strong contribution of SES to mortality necessitates the consideration of the sociocultural context as a confounding factor when examining associations between variables of interest (such as lesions) and mortality in both past and present populations.

Estimating osteological sex using predictive geometric morphometric analyses of the greater sciatic notch

Accurately estimating the biological sex of human skeletal remains is crucial in both forensic and archaeological contexts for constructing biological profiles. Presently, one of the most commonly used methods involves an ordinal scale describing the shape of the greater sciatic notch (GSN). However, this approach is limited by variations influenced by temporal, geographic, and ancestral factors affecting pelvic morphology. Consequently, its reliable applicability is restricted to populations resembling the original reference group. Recent advancements in quantitative analyses offer a promising alternative by enabling detailed measurement of subtle morphological changes, thus enhancing the accuracy of sex estimation using skeletal pelvic remains. In this study, we employ 2D landmark-based geometric morphometrics (GMM) to develop a protocol for pelvic sex estimation by quantifying the curve and angle of the GSN. These techniques are applied to both a contemporary population of adult European-Americans of known biological sexes (33 females, 38 males) and an archaeological population (n = 73) from south-west England. Our analysis reveals that our GMM approach achieves a 90 % accuracy rate in modern populations. Results indicate that both GSN morphology and angle are highly indicative of biological sex, allowing confidence in sex estimations of archaeological remains using these features.

Evidence for human-caused founder effect in populations of Solanum jamesii at archaeological sites: II. Genetic sequencing establishes ancient transport across the Southwest USA.

The domestication of wild plant species can begin with gathering and transport of propagules by Indigenous peoples. The effect on genomic composition, especially in clonal, self-incompatible perennials would be instantaneous and drastic with respect to new, anthropogenic populations subsequently established. Reductions in genetic diversity and mating capability would be symptomatic and the presence of unique alleles and genetic sequences would reveal the origins and ancestry of populations associated with archaeological sites. The current distribution of the Four Corners potato, Solanum jamesii Torr. in the Southwestern USA, may thus reflect the early stages of a domestication process that began with tuber transport. Herein genetic sequencing (GBS) data are used to further examine the hypothesis of domestication in this culturally significant species by sampling 25 archaeological and non-archaeological populations. Archaeological populations from Utah, Colorado and northern Arizona have lower levels of polymorphic loci, unique alleles, and heterozygosity than non-archaeological populations from the Mogollon region of central Arizona and New Mexico. Principle components analysis, Fst values, and structure analysis revealed that genetic relationships among archaeological populations did not correspond to geographic proximity. Populations in Escalante, Utah were related to those on the Mogollon Rim (400 km south) and had multiple origins and significant disjunctions with those populations in Bears Ears, Chaco Canyon, and Mesa Verde sites. Movement of tubers from the Mogollon region may have occurred many times and in multiple directions during the past, resulting in the complex genetic patterns seen in populations from across the Four Corners region.

Application of Frailty Index in Anthropological Material: Two 17th-18th Century Vilnius Cases

In recent years, a new method of measuring stress and frailty in archaeological populations has been developed – the Skeletal Frailty Index (SFI), which can determine changes in the overall health of past people through time. This study considers the applicability of the skeletal frailty index (SFI) in anthropological material by comparing 13 biomarkers of stress between two different 17th-18th century Vilnius communities (Algirdas St. 48C and Subačius St. 7). A sample of 187 individuals (Subačius St. 7, n=105, Algirdas St. 48C, n= 82) between the ages of 18 and over 45 years old was examined. Anova: single factor programme in Excel showed statistically significant differences between the two groups, with Subačius St. 7 individuals (SFI=3,86), who based on archaeological records were the commoners, exhibiting higher frailty than the Algirdas St. 48C individuals (SFI=2,23), who are thought to be the poorest members of society. These differences are explained by the osteological paradox, “cumulative effect” and migration factors. No statistically significant results (p>0.05) were found between female and male individuals in both communities. However, statistically significant results were found between different age groups (p<0.05). The research results of this thesis revealed that the Skeletal Frailty Index (SFI) is a useful tool for assessing the quality of life and health of anthropological data.

Trabecular bone volume fraction in Holocene and Late Pleistocene humans

Research suggests that recent modern humans have gracile skeletons in having low trabecular bone volume fraction (BV/TV) and that gracilization of the skeleton occurred in the last 10,000 years. This has been attributed to a reduction in physical activity in the Holocene. However, there has been no thorough sampling of BV/TV in Pleistocene humans due to limited access to high resolution images of fossil specimens. Therefore, our study investigates the gracilization of BV/TV in Late Pleistocene humans and recent (Holocene) modern humans to improve our understanding of the emergence of gracility. We used microcomputed tomography to measure BV/TV in the femora, humeri and metacarpals of a sample of Late Pleistocene humans from Dolní Věstonice (Czech Republic, ∼26 ka, n = 6) and Ohalo II (Israel, ∼19 ka, n = 1), and a sample of recent humans including farming groups (n = 39) and hunter-gatherers (n = 6). We predicted that 1) Late Pleistocene humans would exhibit greater femoral and humeral head BV/TV compared with recent humans and 2) among recent humans, metacarpal head BV/TV would be greater in hunter-gatherers compared with farmers. Late Pleistocene humans had higher BV/TV compared with recent humans in both the femur and humerus, supporting our first prediction, and consistent with previous findings that Late Pleistocene humans are robust as compared to recent humans. However, among recent humans, there was no significant difference in BV/TV in the metacarpals between the two subsistence groups. The results highlight the similarity in BV/TV in the hand of two human groups from different geographic locales and subsistence patterns and raise questions about assumptions of activity levels in archaeological populations and their relationships to trabecular BV/TV.

Comparing morphological (os coxae) and metric (long bone length) sex estimation methods in archaeological collections.

Objectives: The aim of this study is to evaluate the internal consistency of sex estimation using metric (long bone length) and morphological (os coxae) methodologies from different bones and across different archaeological populations from different regions. Materials and Methods: Sex was estimated using characteristics of the pelvis and compared with sex estimations using long bone length. Portuguese (659 females; 906 males) and English (141 females; 277 males) archaeological collections were analysed in this study. A set of long bone length functions were developed using one of the archaeological collections (531 females; 600 males) and its coincidence with sex estimated from the pelvis was compared to the coincidence between the pelvis and long bone length sex estimations using functions developed from contemporary collections. Intra- and inter-observer errors were calculated, as well as the sexual dimorphism index for each bone and osteological collection. Results: The accuracy of the developed functions and the other methods tested is highly variable, ranging between 25 and 100%. The accuracy of the standard forensic methods varied between collections and analysed bones. Discussion: This study reinforces that long bone length is highly population-specific, even between samples of close chronology and geography. Metric methods are good options to strengthen the sex estimations, but they need to be carefully chosen and always report the estimated probability of being male or female in either forensic or archaeological analysis.

Primary double teeth in archeological medieval material from the area of Poland: A report on two cases

AbstractThe aim of this study was to investigate primary double teeth in archeological material from the area of Poland and a brief review of the literature on the subject. Two cases of fusion of anterior primary teeth in two infants from past populations living in eastern (8th–9th cent. CE) and southern (15th cent. CE) parts of Poland are presented. A macroscopic as well as a radiographic assessment of the teeth was performed, which, in case 1, included a periapical X‐ray and CBCT imaging (Gendex–USA GXDP‐800) and, in case 2, scanning with a SkyScan micro‐CT scanner, along with reconstruction images made using NRECON SkyScan. In case 1, cross‐section and axial CBCT images showed that the fused teeth were joined by dentin in the lower portion of the crown and had two separate pulp chambers and one wide root canal. In case 2, a cross‐sectional microscan confirmed partial fusion with two distinct crowns, two pulp chambers, and one wide common root canal. The discovery of fused teeth in the remains of children, which are typically poorly preserved, is a rare event. Consequently, the reported first cases of double teeth originating from the 8th–9th and 15th centuries CE, found in Poland in Central Europe, are of great value, as they can be used to map dental anomalies in archaeological populations. 3D imaging technologies are essential to establish the final diagnosis of double teeth.

Dental caries in two incas populations. a cross-sectional study

Compare: frequency, severity and location of dental caries between archaeological populations of the Sacsayhuamán and Machupicchu samples. This was a retrospective, cross-sectional and observational study. The variable dental caries was observed directly in the Sacsayhuamán and Machupicchu samples from the Cusco culture directorate. 39 individuals from the Sacsayhuamán sample with 566 teeth and 49 individuals from the Machupicchu sample with 467 teeth were analyzed. The unit of analysis was the tooth. The variable was statistically analyzed by frequencies and proportions and the differences were analyzed using the Chi test. -square. In the Sacsayhuamán sample, pieces with cavities had a frequency of 31.8%, while in the Machupicchu sample they reached a frequency of 23,6%. Regarding the location: in the Sacsayhuamán sample: The following frequencies were obtained: occlusal caries 44,38%, coronary caries 3,37%, caries in the amelocemental line 32,58%, root caries 19,66%; while in the Machupicchu sample the following were obtained: occlusal caries in 60,91%, coronary caries in 3,62%, caries in the amelocemental line in 24,55%, root caries in 12,91%. Regarding severity, we found the following frequencies: in the Sacsayhuamán sample: enamel/cementum caries in 52,81%, dentin caries 33,71%, pulp involvement caries 13,14%, while in the Machupicchu sample: enamel/cementum caries 49,09%, cavities of dentin in (27,27%), caries involving pulp involvement 23,64%. When comparing the samples, differences were found with respect to the frequency of dental caries and with respect to the location, but no differences were found with respect to the severity.

Identifying locals vs non-locals using 87Sr/86Sr isotope analysis: a multimethod approach in the homogeneous environments of the Arabian Gulf

Archaeological strontium isotope investigations of the movement of peoples and animals rely on different methods to characterize a “local” strontium range. In geologically homogenous regions or regions where the creation of isoscapes using proxies is hampered, statistical methods are useful for identifying individuals likely to be local or non-local. We demonstrate how a multi-method approach can be used to evaluate local strontium isotope ranges in Bahrain, an archipelago in the Arabian Gulf. Combining the enamel samples analyzed for this paper (62 human and domesticate herbivore individuals) with previously published faunal 87Sr/86Sr values from Bahrain (20 domesticated herbivores), we found that different statistical methods identified different numbers of individuals as local and were predicated on different assumptions about the distribution of the data. Compared to the standard approach using 2σ of the sample mean, the statistical approaches used in this manuscript identified more potential non-local or securely non-local individuals. Between 18.5 and 44.4% of the non-human animals were identified as non-local, indicating the trade of animals and why using faunal (herbivore) samples alone to characterize a local range is problematic in trading centers. The identification of between 13.7 and 32.9% of the humans as non-local is consistent with other studies of movement in archaeological populations of the Gulf and makes sense given the prominent role of trade in Bahrain from the Early Dilmun to Islamic periods. We argue that statistical approaches to identifying probable non-locals can be used where detailed isoscape data are hard to obtain, but that such results need to be evaluated within the specific archaeological context.

Diachronic Comparison of Three Historical Skeletal Series from Croatia with Regard to Mandibular Bone Quality

The aim of this study was to assess the quality of mandibular bone using CBCT images in archeological populations that inhabited Croatia from the medieval to the Early Modern Period. A total of 88 human skulls (45 male and 43 female) from three samples (pre-Ottoman (N = 27), Ottoman (N = 32), and Vlach (N = 29)) were analyzed by using CBCT. The mental index, gonion index, antegonion index, panoramic mandibular index, degree of resorption of the alveolar ridge, and cortical index of the mandible were evaluated using the OnDemand3DApp. The results showed an expected higher value of cortex thickness in males when compared to females. Females in the younger groups had higher values of cortical thickness than those in the older age group. The Ottoman sample had significantly lower values of mandibular indices than the other two samples. There were no age-related differences in bone thickness in males, suggesting that hormonal changes have a stronger influence in females. Lower values of mandibular indices in the Ottoman sample may be an indicator of specific factors that influenced this population. Our study of bone changes in archeological populations with different living conditions may contribute to a better understanding of impact of biocultural factors on physiological and pathological processes, which are extremely complex in bone tissue.

Test of the lateral angle method of sex estimation on Anglo‐Saxon and medieval archaeological populations with genetically estimated sex

AbstractThe lateral angle method of sex estimation is tested on an archaeological population with genetic sex estimates. Casts of the internal auditory canal were made using a quick drying impression material on 90 individuals (76 adults and 14 nonadults) from Anglo‐Saxon and Medieval Cambridgeshire. The anterior and posterior angles of the internal auditory canal were measured, and the relationship of the angle to genetic sex was tested. The posterior angle failed intra‐observer error tests, and only the anterior angle could be analysed. Using the previously published sectioning point for unburnt remains (45°), the method did not adequately distinguish between the sexes. Furthermore, the difference between male and female was insufficient to create population‐specific discriminant functions. The anterior angle does not meet the requirements for an osteological method of sex estimation, exhibiting no statistical correlation with genetic sex in this population.

More than urns: A multi-method pipeline for analyzing cremation burials.

Burial rites of archaeological populations are frequently interpreted based on cremated remains of the human body and the urn they were deposited in. In comparison to inhumations, information about the deceased is much more limited and dependent on fragmentation, selection of body regions, taphonomic processes, and excavation techniques. So far, little attention has been paid to the context in which urns are buried. In this study, we combined archaeological techniques with anthropology, computed tomography, archaeobotany, zooarchaeology, geochemistry and isotopic approaches and conducted a detailed analysis on a case study of two Late Bronze Age urns from St. Pölten, Austria (c. 1430 and 1260 cal. BCE). The urns were recovered en-bloc and CT-scanned before the micro-excavation. Osteological and strontium isotope analysis revealed that the cremated remains comprised a young adult female and a child that died at the age of 10-12 years. Both individuals had been subject to physiological stress and were likely local. Animal bones burnt at different temperatures suggested different depositional pathways into the urn and pit as part of the pyre, food offerings, and unintentional settlement debris. Eight wild plant and five crop plant species appeared as part of the local landscape, as food offerings and fire accelerants. Sediment chemistry suggests that pyre remains were deposited around the urns during burial. Multi-element geochemistry, archaeobotany, and zooarchaeology provide insights into the Late Bronze Age environment, the process of cremation, the gathering of bones and final funerary deposition.

Cortisol in deciduous tooth tissues: A potential metric for assessing stress exposure in archaeological and living populations

ObjectiveCortisol is a glucocorticoid hormone produced by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis that is regularly assessed in modern human and non-human populations in saliva, blood, and hair as a measure of stress exposure and stress reactivity. While recent research has detected cortisol concentrations in modern and archaeological permanent dental tissues, the present study assessed human primary (deciduous) teeth for cortisol concentrations. Materials and MethodsFifty-one dentine and enamel samples from nine modern and 10 archaeological deciduous teeth were analyzed for cortisol concentrations via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). ResultsDetectable concentrations of cortisol were identified in 15 (of 32) dentine and 8 (of 19) enamel samples coming from modern and archaeological deciduous teeth. ConclusionsThis study is the first known analysis of cortisol from deciduous dental tissues, demonstrating the potential to identify measurable concentrations. SignificanceThe ability to analyze deciduous teeth is integral to developing dental cortisol methods with multiple potential future applications, including research on the biological embedding of stress in the skeleton. This study marks a key step in a larger research program to study stress in primary dentition from living and archaeological populations. LimitationsMultiple samples generated cortisol values that were not detectable with ELISA. Minimum quantities of tissue may be required to generate detectable levels of cortisol. Suggestions for Further ResearchFuture research should include larger sample sizes and consideration of intrinsic biological and extrinsic preservation factors on dental cortisol. Further method validation and alternative methods for assessing dental cortisol are needed.

Enamel thickness per masticatory phases (ETMP): A new approach to assess the relationship between macrowear and enamel thickness in the human lower first molar

Many anthropological studies have examined the functional implications of enamel thickness in human dental crowns. Despite limitations, Enamel thickness (ET) values are still used to infer taxonomic attribution in the genus Homo, and to identify mechanisms of functional adaptation against macrowear. However, only a few studies have tried to describe the possible relationship between ET and dental wear patterns in permanent lower first molars (M1) aiming to observe whether an adaptive response to the environmental and cultural context is detectable. The present work aims to investigate a possible signal of ET adaptive response in M1 (wear stage 3; Molnar, 1971) belonging to individuals who lived between the Neolithic (early 6th millennium BCE) and the Bronze Age (second half of the 2nd millennium BCE) in Croatia to identify any signal of change in dental tissue proportions based on archaeologically documented shifts in population structure and subsistence strategies. In order to do so, we explored 3D Average Enamel Thickness (AET) of the entire crown and wear pattern distribution among individuals and across chronological groups. We then described a new method called “Enamel Thickness per Masticatory Phases” (ETMP) involving the creation of virtual sections cutting enamel and coronal dentine in three parts based on masticatory phases, and explored the distribution of 3D AET accordingly. Finally, we performed geometric morphometric analysis on dental crown to ascertain possible morphological differences between Neolithic, Eneolithic, and Bronze Age groups. Results show that Bronze Age individuals differ from previous groups due to 1) higher values of ET in both the entire crown and specifically in the buccal area, 2) to an extensive wear pattern localized on the buccal side, and 3) to the distal extension of the hypoconid together with an extended mesio-distal shape of the crown. These patterns may represent an adaptive response of dental tissue to varying functional demands (e.g. archaeologically documented dietary shift). The study of ETMP therefore offers a more nuanced method, in addition to morphology and macrowear analysis, to document biocultural processes of change over time in archaeological populations through dental tissues.

Stable isotopes of archaeological and modern semi-terrestrial crabs (Potamon potamios) provide paleoecological insights into brachyuran ecology and human resource acquisition in late Holocene Jordan

Archaeological remains of brachyurans (e.g. crabs) are often overlooked as potential paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatical proxies in contrast to other marine and terrestrial invertebrates such as mollusks and landsnails. The potential for fine-scale regional paleoclimate reconstruction based upon these organisms' behavioral ecology has yet to be examined. We present novel isotopic analyses of the remains of a semiterrestrial freshwater crab (Potamon potamios) endemic to southwest Asia recovered from the archaeological site of Khirbat al-Mudayna al-’Aliya (KMA). KMA lies on a southern tributary of the Wadi al-Mujib in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, approximately 40 km east of the Dead Sea. Excavations here recovered architecture, artifacts, and ecofacts dating to a single-period occupation during the early Iron Age (∼1000 cal BCE). Oxygen and carbon isotopes from these brachyuran remains were analyzed in conjunction with a two-year isotopic and morphometric study of the modern potomonautid population near the archaeological site and at nearby wadi systems to assess whether the isotopic values of modern crab populations correlated with variables such as temperature, including isotopic study of the pools in which crabs were found. In turn, these data could be used to reconstruct paleoclimate or paleoenvironment in the archaeological population. The high correlation in oxygen isotope values between crab carapaces and the water of the pools in which they were sampled suggest that variability in isotopic values of crab specimens recovered from KMA is tracking ancient human capture of these organisms across potentially different pools. Further, intra-year variability in isotopic values in modern crab carapaces as well as the similarity of isotopic values across wadi systems with different environments suggest that P. potamios remains cannot be used as reliable paleoenvironmental indicators. The implications of this research will have significance for archaeologists and other researchers in the study of paleoenvironment and paleoecology, and bears upon human mobility, resource acquisition, and human-nonhuman animal relationships.

Sex estimation using measurements of the proximal femur in a historical population from Poland

Sex estimation is one of the most important components in assessing the biological profile of an individual. In an archaeological context, the pelvis, which is the most dimorphic part of the skeleton, is often poorly preserved, which can cause an inability to use morphological sex estimation methods. Therefore, alternative methods are required in such cases. Because the utility of the metric methods based on the femur measurement has been confirmed, and the bone is usually available for examination due to its good preservation, developing methods using the landmarks of the femur could have important implications in sex estimation. This study aimed to derive a discriminant function equation for a Polish archaeological population based on measurements of the proximal end of the femur. The study sample included individuals from a medieval cemetery in Milicz (n = 62) and an early modern necropolis at Czysty Square in Wrocław, Poland (n = 162). The analysis included seven measurements collected from the right and left proximal femora. To estimate the reproducibility of the measurements, intra-and interobserver errors and reliability coefficients were calculated. Subsequently, univariate and stepwise discriminant analyses were performed, and the sex sectioning points and equations were proposed. No differences were observed between measurements of the right and left femora. The results indicated a high utility and reproducibility of the FHD measurement (regardless whether left or right femur was measured). The discriminant equations for sex estimation reached an accuracy of 83.0–92.3%, which implies the utility of the function on Polish historical populations when the other methods for sex estimation cannot be used.

Sex- and site-specific, age-related changes in bone density - a Terry collection study.

As modern populations are living longer, age-related health issues have become more common. One growing concern is the age-related bone density loss that increases the individual's risk for fractures, which unfortunately seems to disproportionately afflict women. These fractures are not only detrimental to the individuals' lives but also come with a great economic burden to the societies. Although age-related bone loss is a normal phenomenon, studies on archaeological individuals have demonstrated that the pattern how this occurs has experienced changes due to our changing lifestyles. Hence, to add to our understanding of secular trends in age-related bone loss, we studied age- and sex-related differences in vertebral and femoral bone densities of a recent past population of late 19th and early 20th century Americans. We used a sample of 114 individuals (55 males, 59 females) from the Robert J. Terry Anatomical Skeletal Collection. Peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) was used to scan the dry bones. We took one scan from the 4th lumbar vertebra and three scans from the femur. The associations between the age, sex and bone density were analyzed. We were able to detect age-related bone loss in both vertebra and femur. It was observed that men tended to lose more bone density on the vertebra, whereas bone loss in women was more pronounced in the femur. We speculate that differences to modern and earlier archaeological populations are related to the major lifestyle differences between the periods.

Tentative indicators of malaria in archaeological skeletal samples, a pilot study testing different methods

ObjectiveThis study attempts to integrate multiple methods to investigate the presence of malaria in human skeletal samples from an archaeological context. Materials33 well preserved human remains originating from a 17th-century archaeological site in southeastern Romania. MethodsThe human bone samples were analyzed using rapid diagnostic tests for malaria antigens and PCR amplification of Plasmodium falciparum apical membrane antigen 1. A preliminary test was performed to identify and briefly characterize the presence of hemozoin using a combination of TEM imaging and diffraction. ResultsThe rapid diagnostic tests indicated that more than half of the examined samples were positive for Plasmodium antigens, but no traces of the parasites’ genetic material were detected despite repeated attempts. The TEM images indicated that hemozoin might be a promising diagnostic marker of malaria in ancient bones. ConclusionsThe indisputable identification of malaria in the analyzed archaeological population was not possible as none of the applied methodological strategies turned out to be straightforward. SignificanceThis study reinforces the intricacy and limitations of unequivocally identifying malaria in past populations and sets the stage for future studies on such life-threatening infectious disease in a geographical space, which is currently underrepresented in the bioarchaeological literature. LimitationsThe low sample size and the lack of consistency across all assays hindered understanding the role of malaria in the studied population. Suggestions for further researchFurther thorough multidisciplinary approaches on malaria detection in ancient settlements would be appropriate to inform our knowledge of its origins, frequency, and pathogen changes over centuries.

Prevalence of wormian bones worldwide: a critical review

Wormian bones (WB) are the irregular bone structures developed from additional centers of ossification. Although they are commonly found in healthy individuals, under certain conditions (number >10, mosaic pattern, large size), they can indicate pathology. While their coexistence with numerous diseases is well-documented, and various studies have reported their prevalence in populations of various geographic regions, no qualitative critical review of such studies has been conducted. The aim of this paper is to perform a critical review of research studies on the presence of Wormian bones in populations worldwide, with a particular emphasis on the methodology used and the selection of the samples studied. A sample of 44 original research articles was selected via PubMed and Google Scholar databases. Four criteria were assessed: 1) number of individuals in each group, 2) known sex of individuals, 3) selection criteria of individuals, and 4) implementation of the statistical analysis. The origin of the research sample was determined as well as the method of the WB calculation, and data on the WB prevalence worldwide was collected in tabular form. The reported size of the research samples varies from 22 to 628 individuals, derived from both contemporary and archaeological populations. Four major formulas were used in order to provide the frequency of WB. The sex of individuals was known in 18 (40.9%) articles. Most of the articles focused on Asian samples. The difficulties in comparing data on the Wormian bones are caused by considerable inconsistency in the methodology used to research this phenomenon. Therefore, the interpopulation comparisons currently made may not be correctly estimated. Our study highlights the need for using more comprehensive and consistent data collection as well as processing protocol suitable for populational research on sutural bones.

Microcephaly as observed in the late 19th century cemetery of the Meerenberg psychiatric hospital: Diagnostic issues and the value of population‐specific data

AbstractMicrocephaly, characterized by crania with an abnormally small occipitofrontal circumference (OFC), is only sporadically described in paleopathological literature. Accurate identification of individuals suffering from microcephaly is challenging when performed in an archeological context, especially in mild cases, as appropriate reference data are often not available. This study aimed to describe the craniometric characteristics of the Meerenberg (MeB) skeletal collection and to identify microcephalic individuals while focusing on the diagnostic criteria and the influence of reference data on the prevalence of the condition. The value of virtual endocasts as a diagnostic tool was also assessed. Forty‐eight adults (1891–1936) excavated from the cemetery of the MeB psychiatric hospital (Bloemendaal, The Netherlands) were investigated. Microcephalic individuals were identified by using the craniometric characteristics of a contemporary Dutch archeological population as reference. In order to investigate the usefulness of modern clinical head circumference reference data on the diagnostic process, cranial OFCs of the MeB individuals were converted to head OFCs. Virtual endocasts were created from the identified microcephalics and three normocephalics. Three MeB females (all <−3 SD) were identified as microcephalic when compared with a sex‐matched contemporary archeological reference sample. The same three MeB females were classified as microcephalic when using sex‐matched modern clinical reference data and when applying −3 SD of the pooled sex archeological craniometric reference data as cut‐off point. No individuals were classified as microcephalic based on the metric characteristics of the virtual endocasts. Microcephaly can only be accurately identified when using sex‐matched contemporary population reference data, or in its absence, modern clinical data after soft tissue correction. Should sex estimation be unreliable, a –3 SD cut‐off point generated using pooled sex reference data seems suitable as diagnostic tool. Virtual endocast did not support the identification of microcephaly in this study.