Landscape Archaeology Research Articles

Large-scale medieval urbanism traced by UAV-lidar in highland Central Asia.

Aerial light detection and ranging (lidar) has emerged as a powerful technology for mapping urban archaeological landscapes, especially where dense vegetation obscures site visibility1,2. More recently, uncrewed aerial vehicle/drone lidar scanning has markedly improved the resolution of three-dimensional point clouds, allowing for the detection of slight traces of structural features at centimetres of detail across large archaeological sites, a method particularly useful in areas such as mountains, where rapid deposition and erosion irregularly bury and expose archaeological remains3. Here we present the results of uncrewed aerial vehicle-lidar surveys in Central Asia, conducted at two recently discovered archaeological sites in southeastern Uzbekistan: Tashbulak and Tugunbulak. Situated at around 2,000-2,200 m above sea level, these sites illustrate a newly documented geography of large, high-altitude urban centres positioned along the mountainous crossroads of Asia's medieval Silk Routes (6th-11th centuryCE (Common Era)4,5. Although hidden by centuries of surface processes, our pairing of very-high-resolution surface modelling with semiautomated feature detection produces a detailed plan of monumental fortifications and architecture spanning 120 ha at Tugunbulak, thereby demonstrating one of the largest highland urban constellations in premodern Central Asia. Documentation of extensive urban infrastructure and technological production among medieval communities in Central Asia's mountains-a crucial nexus for Silk Road trade networks6-provides a new perspective on the participation of highland populations in the economic, political and social formation of medieval Eurasia.

Effects of climate change and extreme weather events on natural and archaeological landscapes in southwestern Puerto Rico

Recent archaeological fieldwork in the intertidal zone of southwestern Puerto Rico has revealed a unique landscape of ancient shell mounds (accumulations of marine shells deposited by prehistoric peoples). These mounds are, at present, protected from tidal inundation, storm surge, and storm-driven winds by a buffering arc of mangroves known as the Pitahaya Mangrove Forest (PMF). Concerns about the long-term health of these mangroves, and their continuing ability to shelter the shell mounds, motivated the current diachronic remote sensing study examining the effects of both long-term climatic factors (sea level rise, global climate change) and extreme weather events (droughts, hurricanes) on the recent and future health of the PMF. Ultimately, the analysis of NDVI change derived from multispectral satellite imagery, coupled with local climate and weather data and drone-based ground-truthing, revealed troubling trends in the health of the PMF that portend a rather grim future for both the mangroves and the unique ancient landscape they protect.

STONE-PAVED CELLARS IN THE STONE AGE? ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR A NEOLITHIC SUBTERRANEAN CONSTRUCTION FROM NYGÅRDSVEJ 3, FALSTER, DENMARK

ABSTRACT We present the excavation results from a Middle Neolithic site associated with the Funnel Beaker Culture. Within two overlying house phases, a recessed area was recorded, which had been constructed using different sized pebbles. The arrangement and form of the feature clearly indicated anthropogenic origin and is understood as belonging to one of the house phases. Consequently, it is interpreted as a cellar. Several pits and post holes are additional features that were recorded at the site and indicate the presence of a fence structure with up to seven parallel courses. In this paper, we present radiocarbon dates from the features and an age model for the construction and use of the cellar as well as the fences. Moreover, the site Nygårdsvej 3 will be placed in its regional archaeological landscape.

Integrating thermal and optical models with legacy excavation data for spatial inventories

Researching at previously excavated archaeological sites comes with its own challenge set, which includes ground-truthing previously unearthed architectural features to correlate old and new trenches. This study presents a comprehensive examination technique to approach architectural features at mound-type archaeological settlements through the synergistic utilization of thermal and optical imagery obtained via remote sensing technologies. Employing an interdisciplinary approach involving various types of imagery (optical, thermal, and radar) embedded in archaeological data, this research aims to reevaluate legacy spatial data and enhance the understanding of subsurface archaeological features by exploiting the complementary advantages of both thermal and optical sensors.This study involves the acquisition, processing, and integration of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-based thermal and optical datasets to derive a complete representation of archaeological landscapes. Ground-truthing and validation exercises are incorporated to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results. The results contribute to advancing the field of archaeological remote sensing and highlight the significance of integrating diverse sensing modalities for a comprehensive and nuanced interpretation of archaeological landscapes. The techniques exemplified with two mound-type case sites help to generate high-resolution mappings which provide tools to increase the accuracy of on-site legacy data and help digital protection of the sites by generating digital twins. This presents a less costly method than conventional photogrammetric techniques, making it feasible and advantageous for field archaeologists or researchers dealing with legacy spatial data.

Mining, farming, and diplomacy. Understanding the human landscape of Bronze Age Sardinia (Italy) through geospatial analysis

Human agency on landscape modification and land use is often seen in terms of socio-economic opportunities vs. natural constraints. In the study of prehistoric cultures this is both a strong source of information about sustenance strategies and community behaviours, and a subject potentially easy to analyse within a limited set of physical and social parameters. The recent advancements in the use of spatial analysis tools in landscape archaeology allow to obtain ever more precise models. However, studies that compare at the same time the geological landscape and social elements are very scarce. We used Point Pattern Analysis and Modelling to investigate megalithic structures (nuraghes) in Bronze Age southwestern Sardinia (Italy) and identify correlations between their spatial patterns and a set of covariates encompassing both environmental (i.e. topography and geological resources) and cultural factors. The models which best represent pattern distribution come from the combination of covariates from both groups.The models highlight a close distance from known ore deposits and show a clear dependence of Nuragic populations to ore extraction and metallurgy. The availability of fertile soils with moderate permeability and moderately low pH is also significant, as well as a preference to prominent locations with a positive correlation with the Topographic Position Index and the Convexity Index. From a cultural standpoint, we observed a consistent aggregation of simple nuraghes around complex nuraghes at mid-short distances. The occurrence of polycentric patterns can be explained either by the former emerging from the presence of the latter or vice versa, and is typically associated with a loosely stratified social structure devoid of strong hierarchies. These results underscore the efficacy of spatial analysis in disentangling and juxtaposing the physical and social factors influencing the distribution of past culture, and offer new insight on the development of Bronze Age societies in their geographical context.

Geolocation of Old Photographs and Rephotography in the Field: Contribution to a New Understanding of the al-ʿŪla Oasis in the Early 20th Century a.d.

ABSTRACT Historical photographs are commonly available in landscape archaeology; however, they are rarely used systematically for the maximum benefit in terms of spatial and temporal information. In the framework of the al-ʿŪla Cultural Oasis Project (funded and steered by the French Agency for AlUla Development on behalf of the Royal Commission for AlUla), photographs taken at ground level by the Dominican Fathers Antonin Jaussen and Raphaël Savignac in the early 20th century a.d. were geolocated by identifying mountain peaks in the background and comparing distance ratios (on the photos) with angle ratios (on GIS). These locations were then visited in the field to re-take the photographs. This work demonstrates the value of recontextualized ground-level photographs to improve our knowledge of archaeological landscapes when cross-referenced with data from a systematic archaeological survey. We also propose a reproducible methodology for geolocating historical photographs in similar or other contexts.

Archaeoastronomy and Landscape Archaeology at Cahokia

The Mississippian-era site of Cahokia was the largest Native American city north of Mexico. Archaeologists have long speculated about possible astronomic alignments and spatial relationships in the layout of its 100+ earthen mounds. In this paper LiDAR imagery, historic documents, ethnohistoric and archaeologic data are used to assess the site relative to astronomic and landscape alignments. New findings show how Monks, Rattlesnake, Powell and other mounds are aligned to the Sun, Moon, and Milky Way. Additionally, these alignments intersect prominent bluffs to the east and southeast that appear to have been used as horizon markers. 

In Search of the St. Louis Mound Group: Archaeoastronomic and Landscape Archaeology Implications

The Cahokia Mound Group in Illinois, USA, is acknowledged as the largest Native American city north of Mexico. It flourished during the Mississippian Period. Cahokia, however, was only one of three complexes in the immediate area. Located across the Mississippi River from Cahokia, the St. Louis Mound Group was part of the larger complex.The St. Louis Mound Group featured at least 25 earthen mounds including the so-called Big Mound that contained dozens of human burials.In the 1800s the St. Louis Mound Group was leveled to allow for urban expansion. Few records are in existence documenting the location or other details concerning the group. As a result, an important part of prehistory seems lost.  In this paper the likely location for the St. Louis Mound Group is identified using survey plats from the 1850s, early lithographs and other data. Findings are assessed for astronomical alignments and landscape relationships, with possible cosmological implications noted.

Archaeological LiDAR in Mediterranean Karst Landscapes. A Multiproxy Dating Method for Archaeological Landscape and a Case Study From Prehistoric Kras Plateau (Slovenia)

ABSTRACTThe case study area is a small but typical prehistoric landscape in the Kras Plateau on the north coast of the central Mediterranean. The Late Bronze and Iron Age Kras Plateau was an emblematic Mediterranean archaeological landscape dotted with numerous hillforts. Since the mid‐20th century, the landscape had been overgrown with some of the most archaeology‐hostile vegetation, severely impeding landscape archaeology until archaeological LiDAR revealed thousands of archaeological features that attest to a carefully constructed and managed agro‐pastoral landscape. However, these discoveries were hampered by insecure chronology typical of any LiDAR guided analysis. This case study meticulously documented two prehistoric hillforts and a previously unknown agro‐pastoral landscape with hundreds of archaeological features. The focus of the article, however, was on establishing a more precise and objective dating method. We proposed a multiproxy method to date the archaeological landscape. It combines relative dating using remote sensing data and historical maps; dating based on historical context; relative stratigraphic dating; indirect dating based on associated archaeological finds; and dating by association. Particularly, we focused on the association‐based dating of archaeological features. We proposed a method based on the concept of taskscapes that relies on kernel density estimation. Using these methods, we objectively demonstrated that agro‐pastoral landscape features documented with archaeological LiDAR were contemporaneous with Late Bronze Age and Iron Age hillforts and have no connection to the post‐medieval landscape. The latter has important methodological implications for the prehistoric archaeology of Mediterranean karst landscapes, where backdating post‐Medieval landscapes is a common practise.

Identifying fine-scale archaeological features using KH-9 HEXAGON mapping and panoramic camera images: evidence from Liangzhu Ancient City

ABSTRACT Historical fine-scale information of archaeological landscapes is crucial in archaeological investigations. However, documenting such information using satellite sensor data prior to 2000 remains a daunting challenge. Images from the declassified archives of KH-9 HEXAGON (KH-9) cameras, including the panoramic camera system (PCS) and mapping camera system (MCS), offer fine-scale information about archaeological sites. However, noise, contrast distortion and the availability of only a single panchromatic band can limit their potential, particularly for identifying features in subtropical climates within heterogeneous landscape types. This paper focuses on developing a novel multifaceted analytical framework with two components: image pre-processing and feature identification. The image pre-processing component is divided into two steps. First, a trained stationary wavelet transform (SWT) based on the normalized sill (NS) is developed to not only de-noises the image, but also preserve its original image characteristics. Then, the contrast of the de-noised images is optimized by the multi-resolution Top-hat (MTH) using multi-scale information. In the feature identification component, the MCS image is analysed using spatial colour composite write function memory (SCCWFM) and spatial novelty detection (SND). An ultra-fine spatial three-dimensional colour composite (UFSTCC) image and ultra-fine spatial digital surface model (UFSDSM) are produced to aid interpretation of the KH-9 PCS images. The proposed processing pipelines were tested on KH-9 MCS and PCS images of the World Heritage site at Liangzhu Ancient City (LAC) in China, which is characterized by a subtropical climate and a heterogeneous landscape types. The proposed pre-processing pipeline improved considerably the appearance of these images across the LAC landscape while maintaining the original image information. The developed digital analytical approaches for KH-9 PCS and MCS images facilitated straightforward identification of archaeological features in the LAC. The proposed framework has the potential to increase exploitation of the available KH-9 images in archaeological applications.

Seeing the unseen: adapting Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment (LVIA) to examine Neolithic stone circles in the English Lake District

This article presents an in-depth exploration of the application of 3D techniques frequently used in Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment, with a focus on the adaptation of Accurate Visual Representation for use in landscape archaeology. Specifically, this paper explores the visual environment surrounding mid-to-late Neolithic enclosures in the English county of Cumbria.This study explores how 3D modelling, photography, and GIS analyses can enhance our understanding of archaeological landscapes. It focuses on the relationship between stone circles and their visual context, using the concept of ‘visual magnitude’ as a phenomenological lens. The results indicate that the mid-to-late Neolithic Cumbrian stone circles (circa. 3200 – 2500 BC) exhibit similarities to contemporary ‘henge enclosures’ across England.

Archaeological landscapes and long-term settlements in the Perputxent valley (eastern Iberia): Exploring land use strategies and sustainability in a Mediterranean mountain area

In this paper, we present the long-term occupation of the Perputxent Valley with the purpose of exploring the factors that could explain the long-lasting and trans-cultural occupation of resilient sites and landscapes for nearly two millennia. The first part describes the archaeological research carried out based on remote sensing and intensive coverage survey methods and geoarchaeological analysis. The characterisation of the intensive agricultural uses has been studied from the geochemical analysis of the soil and sedimentary record. The objective is to reconstruct the palaeoenvironmental processes and the possible evidence of the agricultural practices. This research has identified the residential spaces, the sites and the agrarian land-uses, especially intensive farmlands. The second part analyses the evidence of this long-term settlements in the context of the archaeological, ethnographic and historical record of the region. Understanding these practices of agriculture and land-use can contribute to understandings of what makes societies sustainable.

Archaeological analysis of the remains of Italian military structures from the period of World War II in Obrovac, Croatia

ABSTRACT Using landscape archaeology methods, field survey, remote sensing, and the analysis of historical aerial photographs, a distinct landscape has been documented in the town of Obrovac, Zadar County, Croatia. This landscape consists of material remains of various military structures from World War II, constituting the defence and occupation system of the town of Obrovac by the armed Italian. These material remains of military structures represent a highly significant material presence in the landscape. The research results presented in this study represent the types of fortifications used by the Italian army during World War II.

Film, fotografie, feit en fictie in het Pollino-gebergte (Zuid-Italië)

Film, photography, fact and fiction in the Pollino Mountains (Southern Italy)The film “Il Buco” (The Hole, 2022) by Michelangelo Frammartino is about a speleological expedition in the Pollino mountains (northern Calabria, Italy) in 1961. It won the Special Jury Award at the 2022 Venice Film Festival and received excellent reviews in the Dutch press (Volkskrant, Trouw, NRC, VPRO Cinema). In the film, an old shepherd at the end of his life observes a group of speleologists exploring an exceptionally deep cave. The shepherd dies just as the speleologists discover the end of the cave. To situate the death scene, Frammartino reconstructed a typical shepherd’s dwelling used in the days when the transhumance summer camps in the Pollino mountains were still used as shepherds’ summer dwellings. Frammartino based the reconstruction on black-and-white pictures from the archive of Giuseppe De Matteis, a speleologist from Turin, who took part in the expedition. De Matteis took several photographs of such shepherd´s dwellings during the period of the cave exploration, especially at the site of Mandra Vecchia, which is now part of the field study area of the Pollino Archaeological Landscape Project (PALP), led by the authors since 2020. These shepherds’ huts were made of wooden poles and planks and reinforced at ground level with limestone blocks. Other pastoral facilities, such as animal pens and sheds for cheesemaking, were located nearby. Archaeological research on the remains of these summer camps, combined with interviews, is beginning to reveal everyday life in Pollino summer camps. In this paper we bring together fact and fiction based on Frammartino’s documentary from 2021, Giuseppe De Matteis´ photo archive from the 1960s and our own fieldwork in the area.

The Dacian Fortress at Cucuiș – Dealul Golu (Hunedoara County) in the light of LiDAR data

The Dacian fortress at Cucuiș- Dealul Golu (Hunedoara County) is a lesser-known fortified hilltop situated not far from the capital of the Dacian Kingdom. Discovered in the 1970s, it underwent several systematic research campaigns in the 1990s; however, the published information remains scarce. There is no record of a published plan, and the research reports do not include any visual documentation. The entirety of Hunedoara County is now covered by ANCPI's recently released digital terrain model, which was generated from LiDAR data. This offers a remarkable potential for conducting archaeological landscape research, particularly with regard to the Dacian era. By utilizing the most recent data, this article presents a fresh viewpoint on the layout of the Dacian fortress at Cucuiș, specifically highlighting the terraces, fortifications, and pathways.

Lidar, Space, and Time in Archaeology: Promises and Challenges

Airborne lidar (light detection and ranging), which produces three-dimensional models of ground surfaces under the forest canopy, has become an important tool in archaeological research. On a microscale, lidar can lead to a new understanding of building shapes and orientations that were not recognized previously. On a medium scale, it can provide comprehensive views of settlements, cities, and polities and their relationships to the topography. It also facilitates studies of diverse land use practices, such as agricultural fields, roads, and canals. On a macroscale, lidar provides a means to comprehend broad spatial patterns beyond individual sites, including the implications of vacant spaces. A significant challenge for archaeologists is the integration of historical and temporal information in order to contextualize lidar data in the framework of landscape archaeology. In addition, a rapid increase in lidar data presents ethical issues, including the question of data ownership.

Survey Techniques and Landscape Archaeology on the Banks of the Ancient Lacus Ligustinus (Southern Spain)

ABSTRACT The use of complementary techniques in this paper contributes to a better understanding of the long-term evolution of the riparian landscape on the southern banks of the lacus Ligustinus (current Guadalquivir marshlands) through the knowledge of related human settlements. The techniques used included field-transect surveys, malacology, anthracology, radiocarbon dating, and magnetometry. Deep plowing at the archaeological site of Haza de Santa Catalina revealed vestiges of different time periods. Comprehensive datasets based on best archaeological practices were collected to explore holistic ecological perspectives and changes over time. Here, we focus specifically on the transition between the 4th and 3rd millennia (Neolithic) and the 1st millennium b.c. (Iron Age–Early Roman period) in western Andalusia. In addition, the theoretical frameworks related to the concepts of riparia and emptyscape are expanded with the knowledge gained in the archaeological fieldwork.

Chapter 1. The state of the field: Emerging approaches to the archaeology of agricultural landscapes

AbstractAlmost 30 years ago, Naomi Miller and Katheryn Gleason edited the influential volume, The Archaeology of Garden and Field, a guide to the identification and interpretation of evidence for past agricultural practice inscribed within the landscape. Here we introduce a new collection of papers that advance both theoretical discourses and methodological approaches to the study of ancient field systems. Contemporary archaeological debates bring new urgency to explorations of relict agricultural features, as they offer powerful perspectives on the entanglements of humans with their environment in the Anthropocene, while also serving to decolonize the past through engagement with Indigenous and traditional ecological knowledge. Although many ancient fields are at dire risk of destruction or have already been lost to modern land‐use changes, an emerging suite of new technologies and innovative methods are now enabling archaeologists to find and interpret past agricultural systems as never before. Herein, we argue for the critical importance of archaeological investigations that prioritize discovery and interpretation of relict fields and their constitution within larger landscapes, both as a means to better understand people in the past as well as our role as a species in shaping global ecosystems.

Finding Fields: The Archaeology of Agricultural Landscapes

Finding Fields: The Archaeology of Agricultural Landscapes

On the Methodology of Analysing Aerial and Satellite Images to Detect Archaeological Sites

Today, the use of remote sensing methods is an integral part of archaeological research. The use of various types of aerial and satellite photography at the level of micro-regions makes it possible to collect data on large areas in a short time. The received data are subject to archaeological deciphering – the process of recognition, detection and interpretation of archaeological information based on photographic images of the Earth’s surface. In the course of deciphering pictures, photographic images of objects are analysed, which have a number of decipherable features, that is, characteristic ones by which archaeological objects can be recognised. Modern processing and recording of these data is carried out in geoinformation systems, taking into account their spatial reference. The analysis of domestic publications showed that this direction is promising for future research in Ukrainian archaeology. However, the researchers do not provide a general, clear methodology for working with aerial photography materials and features of archaeological deciphering. Summarising this information prompts the creation of a consistent description of such work. This description is intended to formalise those research operations, which in one way or another were performed by the above-mentioned authors. The paper is an attempt to create a methodology for the archaeological deciphering of aerial and satellite photos for the remote study of archaeological monuments and the protection of archaeological heritage. It is intended to summarise the previous experience of publishing the methodology of working with remote sensing of the land in the archaeology of Ukraine and to structure it on the basis of our own developments. The proposed scheme is not final or mandatory, but only offers one of the options for the approach to thematic deciphering in archaeology. Undoubtedly, the given algorithm of actions will require improvement and expansion as a result of the accumulation of practical experience and theoretical achievements. It is important to emphasise that this branch of archaeology is closely related to technical sciences and technologies in general and therefore requires thoughtful introspection and competent theorising. To obtain reliable results of deciphering in archaeology, it is necessary to always pay attention to the analysis of the research process and the multi-level process of checking its results. The reliability of the obtained data definitely depends on the clarity and awareness of the sholar’s actions, which in turn has a great impact on various fields of archaeological science, and even national security. The reliability of data depends on the “purity” of research operations, which is extremely important in the process of monitoring archaeological objects. The current state of archaeological monuments in Ukraine in the conditions of martial law, and especially on the territories of hostilities, requires urgent monitoring. With the help of modern aerial and satellite photographs, it is especially relevant and necessary today to investigate the damaged archaeological landscapes, wide application of remote sensing of land, satellite navigation systems and geo-information technologies with decoding, for the collection, processing and analysing the information in combination with the data of specific aerial visual surveys using drones and traditional methods of surveys in those areas where it is possible.