Arabian Leopard Research Articles

Potential evidence of the Critically Endangered Arabian leopard in southern Saudi Arabia

Potential evidence of the Critically Endangered Arabian leopard in southern Saudi Arabia

Leopard subspecies conservation under climate and land-use change.

Predicting the effects of global environmental changes on species distribution is a top conservation priority, particularly for large carnivores, that contribute to regulating and maintaining ecosystems. As the most widespread and adaptable large felid, ranging across Africa and Asia, leopards are crucial to many ecosystems as both keystone and umbrella species, yet they are threatened across their ranges. We used intraspecific species distribution models (SDMs) to predict changes in range suitability for leopards under future climate and land-use change and identify conservation gaps and opportunities. We generated intraspecific SDMs for the three western leopard subspecies, the African, Panthera pardus pardus; Arabian, Panthera pardus nimr; and Persian, Panthera pardus tulliana, leopards, and overlapped predictions with protected areas (PAs) coverage. We show that leopard subspecies differ in their environmental associations and vulnerability to future changes. The African and Arabian leopards are predicted to lose ~25% and ~14% of their currently suitable range, respectively, while the Persian leopard is predicted to experience ~12% range gains. We found that most areas predicted to be suitable were not protected, with only 4%-16% of the subspecies' ranges falling inside PAs, and that these proportions will decrease in the future. The highly variable responses we found between leopard subspecies highlight the importance of considering intraspecific variation when modelling vulnerability to climate and land-use changes. The predicted decrease in proportion of suitable ranges falling inside PAs threatens global capacity to effectively conserve leopards because survival rates are substantially lower outside PAs due to persecution. Hence, it is important to work with local communities to address negative human-wildlife interactions and to restore habitats to retain landscape connectivity where PA coverage is low. On the other hand, the predicted increase in range suitability across southern Europe presents opportunities for expansion outside of their contemporary range, capitalising on European rewilding schemes.

Can genetic rescue help save Arabia's last big cat?

Genetic diversity underpins evolutionary potential that is essential for the long-term viability of wildlife populations. Captive populations harbor genetic diversity potentially lost in the wild, which could be valuable for release programs and genetic rescue. The Critically Endangered Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) has disappeared from most of its former range across the Arabian Peninsula, with fewer than 120 individuals left in the wild, and an additional 64 leopards in captivity. We (i) examine genetic diversity in the wild and captive populations to identify global patterns of genetic diversity and structure; (ii) estimate the size of the remaining leopard population across the Dhofar mountains of Oman using spatially explicit capture-recapture models on DNA and camera trap data, and (iii) explore the impact of genetic rescue using three complementary computer modeling approaches. We estimated a population size of 51 (95% CI 32-79) in the Dhofar mountains and found that 8 out of 25 microsatellite alleles present in eight loci in captive leopards were undetected in the wild. This includes two alleles present only in captive founders known to have been wild-sourced from Yemen, which suggests that this captive population represents an important source for genetic rescue. We then assessed the benefits of reintroducing novel genetic diversity into the wild population as well as the risks of elevating the genetic load through the release of captive-bred individuals. Simulations indicate that genetic rescue can improve the long-term viability of the wild population by reducing its genetic load and realized load. The model also suggests that the genetic load has been partly purged in the captive population, potentially making it a valuable source population for genetic rescue. However, the greater loss of its genetic diversity could exacerbate genomic erosion of the wild population during a rescue program, and these risks and benefits should be carefully evaluated. An important next step in the recovery of the Arabian leopard is to empirically validate these conclusions, implement and monitor a genomics-informed management plan, and optimize a strategy for genetic rescue as a tool to recover Arabia's last big cat.

The decline of the Arabian Leopard Panthera pardus nimr in Saudi Arabia: a values-based plan for future management

AbstractThe Critically Endangered Arabian Leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) has declined to near extinction in Saudi Arabia over the last fifteen or so years. In this paper we provide a time-series assessment of changes in the rate of leopard records since the 1930’s and provide a values-based plan for the management of the species in Saudi Arabia. The number of leopard records rose sharply in the 1960’s, peaking in the early 2000s, a time where human population growth and expansion across Saudi Arabia was also increasing. However, by 2014, the number of leopard records decreased to zero where it has remained. Based upon a clear need for effective conservation of the species, we developed a values-based management plan. In applying the planning framework, we defined the management system and its elements in their current state and the required state by the year 2050. From this work, a value-based goal was established, and four key management activities were recognised (and are expanded upon in the main text). We recommend that work is done to: (1) Ensure sufficient and suitable (in terms of required habitat and prey availability) areas are protected. (2) Reduce the level of human-based predation upon leopards to ensure sustainable mortality rates. (3) Manage the species metapopulation structure in terms of genetic makeup through natural and/or facilitated movement. (4) Continue to build community capacity and willingness to manage and protect the species. If these activities can be successfully completed, a population of Arabian Leopards can exist in Saudi Arabia if it is adaptively managed to deal with any additional and/or emerging threatening processes.

A new-born Arabian leopard cub at the Wild Mammal Breeding Centre in Oman

A new-born Arabian leopard cub at the Wild Mammal Breeding Centre in Oman

Design and Construction of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Using Nano Aluminum and Carbon Composite Materials

This project aims to design and manufacture an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) structure using nano aluminum and carbon composite materials named “Arabian Leopard.” Over the past period, the UAV market has experienced significant growth. In 2019, at least 60 countries were engaged in the development or implementation of at least 1,300 different drones. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is no exception; as a result, it prioritized this sector in Vision 2030 through investment and support to localize and develop it. The ANSYS fluent software will conduct a CFD simulation of the UAV design and airfoil. The airfoil CFD simulation is used to find the lift/drag characteristics of the airfoil used in the UAV design. In this CFD simulation, we conducted an airfoil simulation using Ansys Fluent software. From here, our project is to enhance the local content, present a unique design that embodies a national identity, and introduce nano-aluminum into the airframe to increase its durability, as the aerial vehicle (AV) is the primary component of the UAV system.

Searching for spots: a comprehensive survey for the Arabian leopard Panthera pardus nimr in Saudi Arabia

AbstractThe Arabian leopard Panthera pardus nimr is categorized as Critically Endangered, with < 200 individuals estimated to remain in the wild. Historically the species ranged over an extensive area of western Saudi Arabia but, with no confirmed sightings since 2014, investigating potential continued presence and distribution is of critical conservation importance. We present the results of a comprehensive survey designed to detect any remaining Arabian leopard populations in Saudi Arabia. We conducted 14 surveys, deploying 586 camera-trap stations at 13 sites, totalling 82,075 trap-nights. Questionnaire surveys were conducted with 843 members of local communities across the Arabian leopard's historical range to assess the presence of leopards, other predators and prey species. Predator scats were collected ad hoc by field teams and we used mitochondrial DNA analysis to identify the originating species. We obtained 62,948 independent photographs of animals and people, but none were of Arabian leopards. Other carnivores appeared widespread and domestic animals were numerous, but wild prey were comparatively scarce. Three questionnaire respondents reported sightings of leopards within the previous year, but targeted camera-trap surveys in these areas did not yield evidence of leopards. Of the 143 scats sent for analysis, no DNA was conclusively identified as that of the leopard. From this extensive study, we conclude there are probably no surviving, sustainable populations of Arabian leopards in Saudi Arabia. Individual leopards might be present but were not confirmed. Any future Arabian leopard conservation in Saudi Arabia will probably require reintroduction of captive-bred leopards.

Genomics reveals introgression and purging of deleterious mutations in the Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr)

In endangered species, low-genetic variation and inbreeding result from recent population declines. Genetic screenings in endangered populations help to assess their vulnerability to extinction and to create informed management actions toward their conservation efforts. The leopard, Panthera pardus, is a highly generalist predator with currently eight different subspecies. Yet, genomic data are still lacking for the Critically Endangered Arabian leopard (P.p. nimr). Here, we sequenced the whole genome of two Arabian leopards and assembled the most complete genomic dataset for leopards to date. Our phylogenomic analyses show that leopards are divided into two deeply divergent clades: the African and the Asian. Conservation genomic analyses indicate a prolonged population decline, which has led to an increase in inbreeding and runs of homozygosity, with consequent purging of deleterious mutations in both Arabian individuals. Our study represents the first attempt to genetically inform captive breeding programmes for this Critically Endangered subspecies.

Population trends of striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) in Israel for the past five decades

The striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) is considered “Near Threatened” globally and “Vulnerable” in the Middle East. In Israel, the species has experienced extreme population fluctuations owing to poisoning campaigns during the British Mandate (1918–1948) which were also further exacerbated by the Israeli authorities in the mid-twentieth century. We collated data from the archives of the Israel Nature and Parks Authority for the past 47 years to elucidate the temporal and geographic trends of this species. During this period we found a 68% increase in population and the estimated density is at present 2.1 individuals/100km2. This is significantly higher than all previous estimates for Israel. It appears that the major factors contributing to their phenomenal increase in number are the increase in prey availability because of the intensification of human development, preying on Bedouin livestock, the extinction of the leopard (Panthera pardus nimr), and the hunting of wild boars (Sus scorfa) and other agricultural pests in some parts of the country. Reasons should also be sought in increasing people's awareness as well as in advanced technological capabilities that have allowed an improved observation and reporting system. Future studies need to understand the effects of the large concentrations of striped hyenas on the spatial distribution and temporal activity of other sympatric wildlife to ensure the continued persistence of the wildlife guilds in the Israeli nature.

Modelling potential habitat suitability for critically endangered Arabian leopards (Panthera pardus nimr) across their historical range in Saudi Arabia

Camera trapping can detect and monitor rare species in landscapes spanning thousands of square kilometres but placement of cameras in areas where the animals most likely occur will increase detection success. This vital information is lacking for the critically endangered Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) that has undergone a 90% decline across its range in Saudi Arabia. We aimed to identify suitable Arabian leopard habitat and potential population capacity in Saudi Arabia using data from leopards living in ecologically analogous habitat in South Africa and Oman. We developed a resource selection function (RSF) from 14 leopards’ GPS data in the Cederberg, South Africa, and validated the model using three leopards in the Little Karoo, and two Arabian leopards in Oman. We then projected the model to the historical range of Arabian leopards in Saudi Arabia to estimate likely leopard locations and potential population sizes based on home range metrics. The RSF successfully discriminated between used and available locations (specificity = 96.7%) and had high predictive ability (Rho > 0.9). Leopards selectively used areas away from human settlements and roads, with high enhanced vegetation index, and intermediate slopes and elevations. Saudi Arabia could theoretically host 4 distinct populations totalling 162–362 Arabian leopard females, depending on home range size. Camera traps deployed in the south-western mountains of Saudi Arabia may be most likely to detect remnant populations of Arabian leopards. Further research is needed into the local abundance of prey species and human activity to ensure the persistence of suitable leopard ranges and inform conservation actions.

Cave paleozoology in the Judean Desert: assembling records of Holocene wild mammal communities

ABSTRACTLong temporal records of Holocene wild mammal communities are essential to examine the role of human impacts and climatic fluctuations in the configuration of modern ecosystems. We show that such records can be assembled through extensive radiocarbon dating of faunal remains obtained from biogenic cave deposits. We dated 110 mammalian remains from 19 different cave sites in the Judean Desert. We use the dates in combination with archaeological survey data and bone collagen/apatite δ13C values to study faunal succession in the context of Holocene climate change and human settlement history in the region. Our results suggest a change in the late Holocene, expressed in fewer observations of Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) and gazelle (Gazellaspp.), and an increase of Syrian striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena syriaca), fox (Vulpesspp.), Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana) and rock hyrax (Procavia capensis); suids (Sus scrofa) appear for the first time. According to the data distribution, however, the probability of finding a bone diminishes exponentially with time, which implies that the Judean Desert cave paleozoological record is temporally biased. The weight of evidence ultimately favors an explanation of the observed patterns as the consequence of a combined anthropogenic and climatic impact on local food webs.

Modeling the distribution and movement intensity of the Arabian Leopard Panthera pardus nimr (Mammalia: Felidae)

This study attempts to link the distribution and movement rate of the critically endangered Arabian Leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) to environmental and anthropogenic features, and to identify environmental constraints and priority areas for the recovery of leopard in Arabian Peninsula. Generalized linear and additive models were used to fit leopard presence/absence locations to environmental and anthropogenic variables. Movement rates between the polygons of modeled leopard presence were inferred and mapped using the isolation-by-resistance model, where probability values of the species distribution model were treated as those of conductance. Our results suggest that currently the Arabian Leopard prefers to live and move in terrain that has high values of normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and is difficult for humans to reach. The current network of protected areas largely under-represents the species suitable habitat only covering its 11%, and most of the survey effort to detect and ensure the survival of the leopard in the peninsula has taken place outside the polygons identified by our models as core areas for the species. Our models coupled with existing data suggest the following scenario of the species biogeography: The Arabian Leopard accumulated genetic and phenotypic differences from its conspecifics at a series of glacial maxima during the last glacial period in the Yemeni refugium, from where it expanded elsewhere in the Holocene warming following the expansion of suitable landscape types. Humans expanded too, eventually restricting the source populations of the leopard to an area intersecting eastern Yemen and western Oman today. Our models may serve as a tool for planning future research and conservation for Arabian Leopard.

Changes in the large carnivore community structure of the Judean Desert in connection to Holocene human settlement dynamics

Investigating historical anthropogenic impacts on faunal communities is key to understanding present patterns of biodiversity and holds important implications for conservation biology. While several studies have demonstrated the human role in the extinction of large herbivores, effective methods to study human interference on large carnivores in the past are limited by the small number of carnivoran remains in the paleozoological record. Here, we integrate a systematic paleozoological survey of biogenic cave assemblages with the archaeological and paleoenvironmental records of the Judean Desert, to reveal historical changes in the large carnivore community. Our results show a late Holocene (~ 3400 years ago) faunal reassembly characterized by the diminishment of the dominant large carnivoran, the Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus sbsp. nimr), and the spread of the Syrian striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena sbsp. syriaca). We suggest that increased hunting pressure in combination with regional aridification were responsible for the decrease in the number of leopards, while the introduction of domestic animals and settlement refuse brought new scavenging opportunities for hyenas. The recent extirpation of leopards from the region has been a final note to the Holocene human impact on the ecosystem.

Heart rate variability in Konik and purebred Arabian horses in response to different predator vocalisations

The current predation threat of domestic horses is generally low, and horses do not know predators' frightening cues. We studied whether horses still recognise predation threats. The aim of the study was to analyse the emotional response of purebred Arabian horses (Arabian) and Polish Konik horses (Konik) to an Arabian panther (Panthera pardus nimr) (panther) growl and a grey wolf (Canis lupus) (wolf) howl. Panther vocalisation was known to Arabian ancestors, whereas ancestors of Konik knew wolf vocalisation. The response to the howls of golden jackals (Canis aureus) (jackal), which did not prey on equids, was also studied comparatively. Two groups of 10 adult horses of each breed were subject to predator sounds of one predator daily for 5 min during a turn out on pasture. The test was performed for 18 days in total. The sound of each predator was interchangeably featured from one loudspeaker for 3 days followed by four loudspeakers simultaneously to imitate a group of predators for 3 days. The horses' emotional agitation in response to the sounds was measured based on the parameters of heart rate variability (HRV) using telemetric devices. The results showed that the predators' sounds were identified by horses as stressful or neutral. Horses generally retained their anti-predator responses even in the current habitat, which typically lacks predation cues. The results are not always coherent and may demonstrate that the response is somewhat attenuated. The wolf howl elicited a stronger response in Koniks. The panther growl more strongly influenced Arabians, whereas the jackal howl minimally elicited an agitation in the horses. The differentiated response of the two horse breeds to the three predator species suggests that the response is an innate adaptation to the predation risk in the habitat of the breed ancestors. This response occurs regardless of the emotional arousal specific to a breed, and the frightening cue is not the sound per se but the possible attack of predators. Horses display a type of understanding of the sound meaning. Their HRV response seems to be adequate for the threat signalised by the sound.

Social Behaviour of Horses in Response to Vocalisations of Predators.

Simple SummaryAnimal social strategies are of importance when avoiding predation. Since horses are the least hunted among all farm animal species, we suppose that the alert reaction to a predator’s vocalisation, followed by anti-predator social behaviour, still exists in domestic horses. Recorded vocalisations of three different predators (grey wolf, Arabian leopard and golden jackal) were played to 20 horses of two horse breeds—namely, Konik polski and Arabian. Social responses and tactics in antipredator behaviour differed between the breeds and between predators. Koniks exposed to vocalisations of a howling wolf resulted in tight groupings, while Arabians exposed to the growling of a leopard responded with linear group formation. The behaviour of studied horses, expressed by alertness and defensive formations, indicates existence of the social anti-predator behavior, which in turn may explain the low rates of horses falling prey to predators as compared with other farm animal species.We tested the hypothesis that social defensive responses to the vocalisation of a predator still exist in horses. The recordings of a grey wolf, an Arabian leopard and a golden jackal were played to 20 Konik polski and Arabian mares. Durations of grazing, standing still, standing alert and the number of steps in walk and trot/canter were measured. In one-minute scans, the distances of the focal horse from the reference horse (DIST-RH) and from the nearest loudspeaker (DIST-LS) were approximated. The vocalisation of a leopard aroused the Arabians more than the Koniks (less grazing, stand-still and walk, more stand-alert and trotting/cantering). Koniks showed more relaxed behaviours to the leopard vocalisation (more grazing, stand-still and walk), but high alertness to the wolf playback (stand-alert, trotting/cantering). Spatial formation of the herd of Koniks showed tight grouping (lower DIST-RH) and maintaining distance from the potential threat (DIST-LS) in response to the wolf howling, while the Arabians approached the loudspeakers in linear herd formation when the leopard growls were played. Adult horses responded to potential predation by changing spatial group formations. This ability to apply a social strategy may be one of the explanations for the least number of horses among all hunted farm animal species.

The intensity of physiological and behavioral responses of horses to predator vocalizations

BackgroundPredatory attacks on horses can become a problem in some parts of the world, particularly when considering the recovering gray wolf populations. The issue studied was whether horses transformed by humans and placed in stable-pasture environments had retained their natural abilities to respond to predation risk. The objective of the study was to determine the changes in cardiac activity, cortisol concentrations, and behavior of horses in response to the vocalizations of two predators: the gray wolf (Canis lupus), which the horses of the breed studied had coevolved with but not been exposed to recently, and Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr), from which the horses had been mostly isolated. In addition, we hypothesized that a higher proportion of Thoroughbred (TB) horse ancestry in the pedigree would result in higher emotional excitability in response to predator vocalizations. Nineteen horses were divided into groups of 75%, 50% and 25% TB ancestry. The auditory test conducted in a paddock comprised a 10-min prestimulus period, a 5-min stimulus period when one of the predators was heard, and a 10-min poststimulus period without any experimental stimuli.ResultsThe increase in heart rate and saliva cortisol concentration in response to predator vocalizations indicated some level of stress in the horses. The lowered beat-to-beat intervals revealed a decrease in parasympathetic nervous system activity. The behavioral responses were less distinct than the physiological changes. The responses were more pronounced with leopard vocalizations than wolf vocalizations.ConclusionsThe horses responded with weak signs of anxiety when exposed to predator vocalizations. A tendency towards a stronger internal reaction to predators in horses with a higher proportion of TB genes suggested that the response intensity was partly innate. The more pronounced response to leopard than wolf may indicate that horses are more frightened of a threatening sound from an unknown predator than one known by their ancestors. The differing response can be also due to differences in the characteristic of the predators’ vocalizations. Our findings suggested that the present-day horses’ abilities to coexist with predators are weak. Hence, humans should protect horses against predation, especially when introducing them into seminatural locations.

Modelling the effect of competition for prey and poaching on the population of the Arabian Leopard, Panthera pardus nimr, in Saudi Arabia (Mammalia: Felidae)

The Arabian Leopard Panthera pardus nimr, classified by IUCN as “Critically Endangered”, is Saudi Arabia’s flagship predator. The population of this species has declined to approximately 50 individuals and may become extinct in the Arabian Peninsula if threats are not addressed. In addition to habitat destruction, major threats include poaching and competition for diminishing prey species, two factors which may have been underestimated so far. The main competitors of the Arabian Leopard are the Caracal (Caracal caracal schmitzi) and Arabian Wolf (Canis lupus arabs). With a Population Viability Analysis (PVA), we simulated various scenarios to demonstrate the impact of competition for prey and poaching. The population under stable natural conditions without poaching and restocking (supplementation) would have a survival probability of only 37%. Without competition by the Caracal, survivability of the leopard population would increase to 89%, and without the Arabian Wolf to 98%. The likelihood of extinction would be 1% if both competitors were absent. A second set of scenarios, with a poaching rate of six individuals per year, shows that the leopard would not survive over the next 100 years. Further, the stabilization of the population by means of restocking with captive-bred animals was simulated to test a minimal number of individuals required to substitute the Arabian Leopard population. In addition to the competition by Caracal and Wolf, supplementing a minimum of eight individuals would stabilize the population as it is now, and allow a maximum of six poached individuals per year. Our results demonstrate need for urgent protection of the Arabian Leopard as well as its prey with strict minimization of poaching. Our model, however, does not take into account the effect of habitat destruction and fragmentation, which may also have detrimental impacts to the leopards and associated species.

Conservation challenges for the Arabian Leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) in the Western Highlands of Arabia

ABSTRACT A high proportion of Arabian leopard killings can be attributed to livestock protection. In the process of catching goats, sheep, young camels or other domestic animals, leopards often interfere with human activities and are considered by livestock farmers as direct competitors. With the ongoing decrease of natural prey species, such as Nubian ibex, rock hyrax, Arabian mountain gazelles and cape hare, leopards are now having to shift their diet to livestock. This naturally increases their unpopularity amongst most livestock farmers whom they come into direct, or indirect, contact with. In most cases, leopards are considered a threat for humans. As a result, leopards are hunted within all of their natural range and with different methods, such as trapping and poisoning. In the early part of the 1980s, it was common to use anticoagulant rat killer for poisoning; however, this stopped in 1985. Today, however, other poisons are used by shepherds to kill predators, which include leopards. A total of 52 known incidences of Arabian leopard poisoning have been recorded in Saudi Arabia from the early nineteenth century to February 2014. Shepherds poison the carcasses of domestic sheep, goats, camel or donkeys thought to have been killed by predators such Arabian wolf, striped hyena or stray dogs and, invariably, it is the elusive Arabian leopard who tends to eat these carcasses. The population of Arabian leopards in Saudi Arabia has almost been wiped out and exists in extremely low numbers in remote mountain ranges. A national leopard strategy and action plan known as the Saudi Leopard Conservation Plan has been developed to protect them from extinction, but further field research and public awareness-raising with regards to banning poisoning or killing the species is absolutely necessary to ensure their survival.

Carnivores of the Tabuk Province, Saudi Arabia (Carnivora: Canidae, Felidae, Hyaenidae, Mustelidae)

Between 2010 and 2017, records of carnivores in the Tabuk Province were gathered using camera traps, live traps and direct observations. Altogether seven species of carnivores representing four families were recorded: two felines, Felis margarita and Panthera pardus nimr, a hyaenid, Hyaena hyaena, a mustelid, Mellivora capensis and three canids, Canis lupus, Vulpes cana and Vulpes vulpes. For each species, a list of localities is given and its current distribution is described. Unfortunately, many of the reported specimens were killed by hunters or local people. Major threats to carnivores in the Tabuk Province, such as killing and hanging, are discussed and potential solutions are suggested.

Isolation and preservation of multipotent mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow of Arabian leopard (Panthera pradus nimr).

The Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) is critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, with an effective population of 150-250 across its entire range in the Arabian Peninsula. Isolation and preservation of multipotent mesenchymal stem cells is beneficial both for medical and research purposes. The optimal protocol for collection, handling, culturing and preserving the Arabian leopard mesenchymal stem cells acquired from bone marrow was established. Anesthesia with combination of medetomidine and tiletamine-zozalepam is the safest option even for old animals with concurrent disease including chronic kidney disease.