Applied Sport Psychology Practice Research Articles

The what, why, and how of goal setting: A review of the goal-setting process in applied sport psychology practice

Goal setting is a widely used intervention by sport psychology practitioners (SPPs) and coaches aimed at enhancing the performance of their clients and athletes. Many mnemonics and acronyms have been suggested to follow when setting goals. These often recommend certain principles or characteristics, such as setting specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-related (SMART) goals. Less attention has been paid to the process of goal setting, or specifically how a SPP or coach goes about setting goals. The purpose of this review was to provide an overview of current goal-setting processes by identifying, describing, and comparing models within the applied sport psychology and professional practice literature. Furthermore, we aimed to synthesize contextual information and critically evaluate stages presented in these processes, while providing further considerations for practitioners and future directions for researchers. Our review shows there are several commonalities in the suggested processes of setting goals and that the stages can be broadly categorized as: (i) preparation; (ii) goal setting; (iii) planning; and (iv) follow-up. Although goal setting should be applied in a dynamic, individualized, and contextually-appropriate manner, the review demonstrates the need for integration of additional evidence-based psychological strategies within each stage of the goal-setting process. Lay summary: In this paper we provide an overview and synthesis of the different goal setting processes used by SPPs and coaches. We present ideas to consider when setting goals and direction for research in this area.

Person-Centered Sport Psychology Practice: A Framework for Working With Emotions and Complex Processes

Person-centered therapy (PCT) is a client-centered therapeutic approach that focuses on the practitioner–client relationship and has been shown to be an effective practice approach when working with clients presenting complex emotional experiences. We provide a brief outline of PCT theory and specific practice techniques for working with emotions in applied sport psychology practice. By adopting a case-report methodology, we outline self-charting and clearing a space, which can be applied when working with complex emotions in the sport context. This case report contributes to the literature as the first study to provide a framework for PCT application in applied sport psychology. By providing a “how-to-apply” framework, we aim to show how to apply these techniques in practice using “in vivo” session transcripts. Evaluations of interventions and reflections are demonstrated, which will provide practitioners with a case example and recommendations for context-sensitive application of PCT.

The quest for professional self-understanding: Sense making and the interpersonal nature of applied sport psychology practice

Several authors within the sport psychology literature have acknowledged an interpersonal dimension of applied practice, with several publications highlighting the significance of developing and maintaining effective working relationships with a range of key stakeholders (i.e., athletes, managers, coaches, sports physicians, parents). Through the use of a longitudinal series of semi-structured interviews across an eighteen month period, this article explores the experiences of four trainee practitioners and two qualified sport psychologists, and their perceptions of working with multiple stakeholders, examining how such encounters serve to shape and inform their professional self-understanding in a contextual manner. Key themes constructed through Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis accounted for finding one’s place, picking your battles and being seen to do a “good” job. Upon acknowledgement of self-perception and recognition from others as being fundamental factors in shaping a practitioner’s professional self-understanding, the present article encourages early career practitioners, and the professional bodies who train them, to increase their engagement with other fields and professions, with a view to better preparing sport psychologists for the everyday interpersonal demands of successful applied practice. Lay summary: This article explores trainee and qualified practitioners’ experiences and reflections of working with multiple stakeholders to better prepare sport psychologists for everyday interpersonal demands of successful applied practice. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE The current article Furthermore highlights the inherently micropolitical nature of applied sport psychology contexts, illuminating the significant influence that interpersonal relationships with key contextual stakeholders can have upon a practitioner’s professional self-understanding. The current article serves to support practitioners’ efforts in seeking to better manage their interpersonal relationships with key stakeholders, enhancing their ability to “survive and thrive” as applied practitioners. The novel theoretical lens adopted within this study, provides a basis to help scaffold developmental activities relating to professional self-understanding, micropolitical activity, and contextual understanding.

Reflect In and Speak Out: An Autoethnographic Study on Race and the Embedded Sport Psychology Practitioner

This paper aims to present a critical experience of race for the embedded sport psychology practitioner from a non-WEIRD, migratory, Black, Asian, and minority ethnic doctoral student and trainee sport psychologist in the United Kingdom. In particular, I move from intrapersonal reflection to an interpersonal cultural analysis that (re)considers some assumptions in existing training and applied sport psychology practice. In the consequential ripples to these reflections, I evaluate and argue to modify (a) ideology of the culturally isolated practitioner, (b) self-recognition of unconscious bias and discrimination, and (c) routes to incorporate antidiscriminatory practice training in sport psychology education pathways. Using a rigorous autoethnographic approach on this novel area reveals several implications for applied practice and the development of professional philosophy. Using conversation vignettes, personal lived experience accounts on the impact of race on education and development as a practitioner are discussed in this original work. The goal is to make the invisible visible by exploring vulnerabilities in practice, client engagement, and educational training in an equal and nondiscriminatory manner.

“Caught in the Headlights”: A Reflective Account of the Challenges Faced by a Neophyte Practitioner Working With a National Squad

This article provides a neophyte practitioner’s account of providing psychological support to a national team for the first time. The practitioner felt “caught in the headlights” due to his lack of preparation for the range of organizational issues he encountered. In this confessional tale, experiential knowledge gained by the practitioner is shared through the presentation of self-reflections from the 6-month period when he supported the squad. While the practitioner’s time with this national squad was limited, it gave him a sense of the micropolitical landscape of the sporting organization and illuminated some of the complexities and dilemmas that characterize applied sport psychology practice. These reflections are offered to guide other aspiring professionals during their initial training experiences.

Developing the effectiveness of applied sport psychology service delivery: A reflective practice intervention

Little empirical evidence exists to corroborate the proposed benefits that reflective practice may have for service delivery effectiveness in Applied Sport Psychology (ASP). To systematically address this gap, we collected data over a five-year period via a staggered, single-subject multiple-baseline intervention that aimed to: (a) investigate the effectiveness of a training programme designed to enhance practitioners’ abilities to engage in higher levels of reflection; and (b) explore whether developments in level of reflection influenced practitioner effectiveness. Eight trainee and four professionally qualified, UK based practitioners participated in an individualised 14-week study, which contained a two week intervention and a two month post-study retention assessment. All participants demonstrated immediate improvements in the level they were able to reflect at, as well as augmented reflective learning following the intervention. Measures of effective practice (e.g. client feedback, self-assessments) also demonstrated improvements post-intervention. In-depth social validation procedures substantiated these findings, with participants reporting that through more critical levels of reflection they experienced enhanced self-awareness, approaches to meeting client needs, professional judgement and decision making, and a range of other characteristics associated with effective consultants. Our findings offer novel support for the links between reflective practice and service delivery effectiveness, as well as a better understanding of the mechanisms through which such adaptations occur. This study makes a significant contribution by providing an in-depth, longitudinal insight into the value of focusing practitioner training on reflective practice as a meta-cognitive strategy to enhance ASP practice.

The use of virtual reality head-mounted displays within applied sport psychology

Virtual reality (VR) technology has been employed within several domains such as medicine, education, and the military. Nonetheless, there is limited research examining how VR can supplement applied sport psychology practice. This article provides the reader with an understanding of key components and concepts associated with VR head-mounted displays (HMDs). Subsequently, a range of possible applications within applied sport psychology are discussed, such as the training of perceptual-cognitive skills, relaxation strategies, and injury rehabilitation. Thereafter, the practicalities of using VR HMDs are outlined, and recommendations are provided to applied sport psychology practitioners wishing to embed this technology within their practice.

More Than Meets the (Rationalistic) Eye: A Neophyte Sport Psychology Practitioner’s Reflections on the Micropolitics of Everyday Life within a Rugby League Academy

Despite the welcome contributions of the reflective practice literature, an understanding of the complexities, nuances, and dilemmas of applied sport psychology practice is in need of further development. For example, there remains a paucity of inquiry addressing how practitioners make sense of, and subsequently write themselves into, the (micro)political landscape of a sporting organization. Utilizing a reflective, ethnographic approach, this article examined the first author’s engagement with the sociopolitical dynamics of everyday life within a professional rugby league academy. Key themes identified were that (a) players simultaneously collaborate and compete with one another, (b) tensions exist between the coaches, and (c) most players end up being released. Micropolitical theorizing was used as the primary heuristic framework, thus promoting the utility of these theories to inform critical appreciation of the day-to-day realities of applied sport psychology practice. The article concludes by highlighting the potential benefits of researchers, educators, and practitioners better engaging with the contested, ambiguous, and professionally challenging demands of practice than that which has been achieved to date.Lay Summary: This article discusses the first author's critical reflections on issues of practice as a sport psychologist working within a professional rugby league academy. The issues discussed illustrate how power, conflict, and vulnerability typified day-to-day interactions within this sporting context and impacted upon applied practice.

应用运动心理学实践有效性评估 = Evaluation on effectiveness of applied sport psychology practice

The current paper relates and discusses the application of effectiveness evaluating in applied sport psychology practice by combining the authors' practical experiences with a review of the literature related to evaluation of effectiveness of applied sport psychology practice. The aim of the paper is to emphasize the importance of the evaluation of effectiveness in sport psychology service. It is hoped that the information introduced in this paper could provide some references for sport psychology practitioners in China. Moreover, it is expected that more Chinese professionals will pay attention to the effectiveness evaluation and take part in the discussion and exploration in this area.

Blurred lines: Performance Enhancement, Common Mental Disorders and Referral in the U.K. Athletic Population.

Through the awareness-raising efforts of several high-profile current and former athletes, the issue of common mental disorders (CMD) in this population is gaining increasing attention from researchers and practitioners alike. Yet the prevalence is unclear and most likely, under-reported. Whilst the characteristics of the sporting environment may generate CMD within the athletic population, it also may exacerbate pre-existing conditions, and hence it is not surprising that sport psychology and sport science practitioners are anecdotally reporting increased incidences of athletes seeking support for CMD. In a population where there are many barriers to reporting and seeking help for CMD, due in part to the culture of the high performance sporting environment, anecdotal reports suggest that those athletes asking for help are approaching personnel who they are most comfortable talking to. In some cases, this may be a sport scientist, the sport psychologist or sport psychology consultant. Among personnel in the sporting domain, there is a perception that the sport psychologist or sport psychology consultant is best placed to assist athletes seeking assistance for CMD. However, sport psychology as a profession is split by two competing philosophical perspectives; one of which suggests that sport psychologists should work exclusively with athletes on performance enhancement, and the other views the athlete more holistically and accepts that their welfare may directly impact on their performance. To add further complication, the development of the profession of sport psychology varies widely between countries, meaning that practice in this field is not always clearly defined. This article examines case studies that illustrate the blurred lines in applied sport psychology practice, highlighting challenges with the process of referral in the U.K. athletic population. The article concludes with suggestions for ensuring the field of applied sport psychology is continually evolving and reconfiguring to ensure that it continues to meet the demands of its clients.

In the face of adversity: Resiliency in winter sport athletes

Summary Objectives To explore winter sports athletes’ experiences of adversity within their sporting careers. Methods Data were collected from semi-structured interviews with seven British elite winter sports athletes (mean age = 23.1 years, S.D. = 2.4), representing a range of winter sport disciplines. Results Twelve general dimensions emerged, serving to support the pioneering conceptual model of sport resilience, and emphasizing the role previous experiences of adversity have on the acquisition of resilient qualities. Conclusions The findings from this study have the potential to inform applied sport psychology practice. Specifically regarding the development of a ‘resiliency package’, which could aim to protect athletes from maladaptive and/or dysfunctional responses to adversity, and encourage adaptive and resilient reintegration.

Three (MORE) myths of applied sport psychology practice

Three (MORE) myths of applied sport psychology practice

Exploring the value of reflective practice interventions within applied sport psychology: Case studies with an individual athlete and a team

Despite the reported value of reflective learning in the sport literature, the efficacy of reflective practice remains in doubt due to the paucity of applied examples of its value in practice. The aim of this paper, therefore, is to provide case study examples of reflective practice interventions delivered to an individual athlete and a team. The first case presents a reflective practice intervention designed to improve the self-efficacy of an elite, male cricketer. The second case outlines the utility of individual and shared written reflections, conducted by an international age grade rugby squad to construct and evaluate team goals. In both cases emphasis is placed on in-depth social validation procedures used to assess the detail of effectiveness post-intervention. The value of utilising reflective practice as an approach to intervening with athletes is discussed along with the practical implications of making reflection a more integral aspect of applied sport psychology practice.

A Professional Judgment and Decision Making Case Study: Reflection-in-Action Research

This case study of an elite judo player recovering from injury provides an exemplification of a practitioner’s Professional Judgment and Decision Making (PJDM) using a ‘reflection-in-action research’ methodology. The process of “reflection-in-action” Schön (1991) and in particular the concept of ‘framing’ offer insight into how professionals think in action. These concepts assisted the practitioner in organizing, clarifying and conceptualizing the client’s issues and forming intentions for impact. This case study exemplifies the influence of practitioner PJDM on implementation at multiple levels of practice including planning the overall program of support, designing specific interventions to aid client recovery and moment-to-moment in-situ decision making session-by session. It is suggested that consideration of practitioner PJDM should be a strong feature of case study reporting and that this approach carries the potential to extend our use of case studies within applied sport psychology practice.

Are perfectionistic strivings in sport adaptive? A systematic review of confirmatory, contradictory, and mixed evidence.

A controversial issue in sport perfectionism research concerns the degree to which athletes’ perfectionistic tendencies are adaptive or maladaptive. Insight into this issue can be obtained by distinguishing between two perfectionism dimensions: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. Past narrative reviews concede that perfectionistic concerns are maladaptive in sport, but offer contrasting conclusions about whether athletes’ perfectionistic strivings are adaptive or maladaptive (see Flett & Hewitt, 2005; Hall, 2006; Stoeber, 2011). To address this discrepancy, this review systematically documented, categorised, and quantitatively analysed 201 correlations from 31 studies on perfectionism in athletes. When bivariate correlations were regarded, the proportion of evidence associating perfectionistic strivings with adaptive characteristics in sport was slightly greater than the proportion of evidence associating the dimension with maladaptive characteristics in sport. When partial correlations were regarded (i.e., correlations that controlled for overlap with perfectionistic concerns), a clear majority of evidence associated perfectionistic strivings with adaptive characteristics and only a small minority associated it with maladaptive characteristics. Across both instances, though, considerable evidence (as represented by nonsignificant correlations) associated perfectionistic strivings with neither adaptive nor maladaptive characteristics. Collectively, these findings suggest that perfectionistic strivings among athletes are predominantly adaptive, occasionally neutral, and rarely maladaptive. However, this trend is only apparent when the negative influence of perfectionistic concerns is controlled. Implications of these findings on future research directions and applied sport psychology practice are discussed.

A perspective on education and professional development in applied sport psychology

Objectives and method As the field of applied sport psychology (ASP) is witnessing a growth in interest in professional practice, it is also faced with the challenge of developing its professional status. Taking into account the lack of research on the career development of ASP practitioners, this article reviews research and information relevant to two major career phases: a) education in preparing for ASP practice, and b) initiation and development of professional ASP practice. The paper also provides an initial collation of information and research regarding ASP education, professional development, and service provision in Europe. Results and conclusions Results revealed that the field of ASP still faces the challenge of formulating an encompassing and uniformly used definition of ASP; of gaining a better understanding of the career development of ASP professionals, with particular attention for female ASP practitioners; of gaining insight into, analysing and providing quality management in the educational pathways preparing for ASP practice; and of optimising the vocational development of the ASP professional by way of ensuring the quality of ASP service delivery and the development of competencies in ASP practitioners. In conclusion, recommendations are formulated for furthering the development of ASP in Europe, and on the possible role of the European Federation for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (FEPSAC).

Enhancing the Evaluation of Effectiveness with Professional Judgment and Decision Making

On the basis of anecdotal evidence and media interest, the public profile of applied sport psychology is ever increasing in terms of its perceived impact on the performance of elite athletes and teams. In the profession, however, there is some concern over whether we are managing to concurrently match this pace empirically, through the evolution of scientific methods and mechanisms to evaluate the effectiveness of practice. This article considers requirements of the current evaluation climate and provides an overview of existing formal evaluation procedures. It is suggested that the evolving intricacies and complexities of applied sport psychology practice are neither fully captured nor represented by these procedures. Consequently, a framework of professional judgment and decision making (PJDM) is proposed from which to consider the evaluation of practice. In addition, methods and mechanisms for enhancing and building on our current evaluation procedures are offered.

The Development of Consulting Practice in Applied Sport Psychology: Some Personal Perspectives

The history and development of applied sport psychology practice has not received the same attention and documentation as that of academic sport psychology. After a brief introduction to the literature on the history and professional development of applied sport psychology, some personal perspectives from consultants who have been practicing “in the field” over the last two to four decades are provided. Eleven well-known practitioners discuss how they got started, how their consulting has developed, what significant experiences they have had, and what lessons they have learned along the way. They relate their views on the progression of professional practice and what the future may hold. Finally, they offer some encouragement, cautions, and words of wisdom for fellow and future colleagues in sport psychology consulting.