Applied Contact Pressure Research Articles

Tunable amorphous carbon films formed on ultralow wear, Pt–Au alloys

The mechanocatalytic formation of carbonaceous films at the interface between sliding metallic contacts is simultaneously advantageous for reducing friction and adhesion in several tribological applications and detrimental for electrical contacts as they can induce device failure by increasing the contact resistance. Yet, remarkably little is still known about the chemistry, structural and mechanical properties, and tunability of these interfacial layers. In this study, we performed contact pressure-dependent tribological experiments in dry nitrogen containing trace organics on four, nanocrystalline Pt–Au alloys ([Au] from 0 at.% to 10 at.%) – a promising class of alloys for ultralow wear and electrical contact applications. The ex-situ, multi-technique characterization results did not only provide insights into the chemical nature and mechanical behavior of the mechanocatalytic, carbon-rich films formed on Pt–Au surfaces, but also revealed the interplay between catalytic and mechanochemical tribofilm formation controlled by the composition-dependent electronic structure of the Pt–Au substrate and the applied contact pressure. The results of this work provide guidelines for tailoring nanocrystalline alloys to control their mechanocatalytic activity on the basis of variations of the alloy mechanical properties and element's electronic structure with the alloy stoichiometry.

Thermal Contact Resistance between Mold Steel and Additively Manufactured Insert for Designing Conformal Channels: An Experimental Study

The focus of this research is on thermal contact resistance between a mold and its insert, specifically inserts made by additive manufacturing (AM). Using a thermal steady-state system and varying contact pressures (0, 50, 75, and 100 bars), we present experimental results of the thermal contact resistance at the contact interface between steel A (1.2344), obtained from an extruded rod, and steel B (1.2709), produced by laser powder bed fusion. Thermal tests were performed for unbonded and bonded configurations. Results showed that increasing the contact pressure allows the system equilibrium to be reached at lower temperatures. Furthermore, thermal tests showed that in the transition zone of the bonded configuration, a well-defined resistance is not formed between the two steel samples as it occurs in the unbonded configuration. For the unbonded configuration, the thermal contact resistance values decrease with increasing applied contact pressure, improving the system’s heat transfer.

Effects of Contact Pressure in Reflectance Photoplethysmography in an In Vitro Tissue-Vessel Phantom.

With the continued development and rapid growth of wearable technologies, PPG has become increasingly common in everyday consumer devices such as smartphones and watches. There is, however, minimal knowledge on the effect of the contact pressure exerted by the sensor device on the PPG signal and how it might affect its morphology and the parameters being calculated. This study explores a controlled in vitro study to investigate the effect of continually applied contact pressure on PPG signals (signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and 17 morphological PPG features) from an artificial tissue-vessel phantom across a range of simulated blood pressure values. This experiment confirmed that for reflectance PPG signal measurements for a given anatomical model, there exists an optimum sensor contact pressure (between 35.1 mmHg and 48.1 mmHg). Statistical analysis shows that temporal morphological features are less affected by contact pressure, lending credit to the hypothesis that for some physiological parameters, such as heart rate and respiration rate, the contact pressure of the sensor is of little significance, whereas the amplitude and geometric features can show significant change, and care must be taken when using morphological analysis for parameters such as SpO2 and assessing autonomic responses.

Auscultation System for Acquisition of Vascular Sounds - Towards Sound-Based Monitoring of the Carotid Artery.

IntroductionAtherosclerotic diseases of the carotid are a primary cause of cerebrovascular events such as stroke. For the diagnosis and monitoring angiography, ultrasound- or magnetic resonance-based imaging is used which requires costly hardware. In contrast, the auscultation of carotid sounds and screening for bruits – audible patterns related to turbulent blood flow – is a simple examination with comparably little technical demands. It can indicate atherosclerotic diseases and justify further diagnostics but is currently subjective and examiner dependent.MethodsWe propose an easy-to-use computer-assisted auscultation system for a stable and reproducible acquisition of vascular sounds of the carotid. A dedicated skin-transducer-interface was incorporated into a handheld device. The interface comprises two bell-shaped structures, one with additional acoustic membrane, to ensure defined skin contact and a stable propagation path of the sound. The device is connected wirelessly to a desktop application allowing real-time visualization, assessment of signal quality and input of supplementary information along with storage of recordings in a database. An experimental study with 5 healthy subjects was conducted to evaluate usability and stability of the device. Five recordings per carotid served as data basis for a wavelet-based analysis of the stability of spectral characteristics of the recordings.ResultsThe energy distribution of the wavelet-based stationary spectra proved stable for measurements of a particular carotid with the majority of the energy located between 3 and 40 Hz. Different spectral properties of the carotids of one individual indicate the presence of sound characteristics linked to the particular vessel. User-dependent parameters such as variations of the applied contact pressure appeared to have minor influence on the general stability.ConclusionThe system provides a platform for reproducible carotid auscultation and the creation of a database of pathological vascular sounds, which is a prerequisite to investigate sound-based vascular monitoring.

Evaluation of measuring thermal conductivity of isotropic and anisotropic thermally insulating materials by transient plane source (Hot Disk) technique

The transient plane source (TPS) technique, also referred as the Hot Disk method, has been widely used due to its ability to measure the thermal properties of an extensive range of materials (solids, liquids, and powder). Recently, it has been recognized that typical Hot Disk sensors can influence TPS results of thermally insulating materials and lead to an overestimation of thermal conductivity. Although improvements have been proposed, they have not yet been implemented in the commercial TPS, leaving researchers with non-standardized modifications or options provided by a commercial Hot Disk apparatus. An empirical study of thermally insulating materials such as extruded polystyrene (XPS) and aerogel blanket is conducted in order to address the factors that affect the reliability of thermal conductivity k obtained using the commercial TPS apparatus. Sensor size, input power, duration of the measurements, applied pressure, and, in the case of anisotropic materials, heat capacity are investigated, and the results are compared with those using a Heat Flow Meter apparatus. The effect of sensor size on the k value is ascribed to heat loss through connecting leads and is more pronounced in smaller sensors and in materials with lower k values. In the case of XPS and aerogel, the effect becomes minimal for sensors with a radius r ≥ 6.4 mm. The low input power yields a high scattering of the results and should be avoided. Applied contact pressure and the tested region of the specimen play an important role in experiments with low-density fibrous materials due to the large percentage of heat being transferred by radiation and the heterogeneous nature of the samples, respectively. Additionally, the sensitivity of anisotropic measurements to the value of the material’s volumetric heat capacity (ρCp) is shown, emphasizing the need for the precise determination.

Evaluation of Contact Thermal Resistance of Ag Paste under High Heat Flux Conditions

This study describes the evaluation of thermal contact resistance under high heat flux. Next-generation semiconductor devices have advantage, which are high voltage device, and can be used under very high temperature and high heat flux. The contact thermal resistance of TIM (Thermal Interface Material) used at high temperature, thus, should be evaluated. Ag paste is expected as TIM used at high temperature. In this study, the contact thermal resistance is experimentally evaluated by steady state method. The experimental apparatus has heat transfer surface of φ 20.0 mm, and applied contact pressure to the heat transfer surface is 0.09 MPa. The results show that the temperature gap between the heat transfer surfaces show complete different tendency before / after solidification of the Ag paste.

Evaluation of Anti-Wear Properties of Metalworking Fluids Enhanced with Halloysite Nanotubes

The study of nanoparticles as additives for metalworking fluids (MWFs) with applications in the metal removal processes, or machining, has received increasing attention due to the possible enhancements on tribological properties. In this study, low-cost and environmentally friendly nanoparticle additives of halloysite clay nanotubes (HNTs) were dispersed in metalworking fluids utilized for milling processes. Concentrations of 0.01, 0.05, 0.10 wt. % were incorporated into a mineral oil (MO) and a semi-synthetic fluid (SF) by ultrasonication. The anti-wear properties of metalworking nanofluids were characterized with a T-05 block-on-ring tribotester at a contact pressure of 0.5 GPa. Surface roughness of worn block materials was obtained with an optical 3D surface measurement system. Results showed that at a concentration of 0.10 wt. % HNTs block mass loss was lowered by 24% for the MO + HNTs nanofluids. For the SF + HNTs, a reduction of 63% and 32% in wear mass loss and coefficient of friction (COF), respectively, were found at the same concentration. The tribological enhancing mechanism for the applied contact pressure was proposed to be due to a reduction of the area of contact and nanoparticle sliding between surfaces with no HNT deposition, evidenced by energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS). Furthermore, surface roughness studies of worn blocks showed smoother surfaces with lower groove density with the addition of nanoparticle additives. The results of this study demonstrate that HNTs can improve the lubricity of metalworking cutting fluids used for machining processes, enhancing tool life and providing better surface finish of products.

Impact of Contact Pressure on Breakdown Strength of Solid-Solid Interfaces

Solid-solid interfaces are considered as weak points ofthe insulation since combination of two solid dielectricsincreases the risk of cavities and moisture at the interfaceagainst the tangential component of the applied electricalstress. The main objective of this paper is to investigatethe impact of the applied contact pressure on shrinkageof the size of cavities on the interface that leads toenhancement in the breakdown strength. Experimentalmeasurements of AC 50 Hz breakdown voltage of solidsolidinterfaces assembled under standard laboratoryconditions were conducted using two differentspecimens, namely XLPE and silicon rubber. For thesame applied contact pressure, breakdown strength ofXLPE-XLPE and silicon rubber-silicon rubber interfaceswere also analyzed to yield the influence of elasticitymodulus (softness) of the solid material on theeffectiveness of the applied pressure. Two differentlevels of contact pressures were applied for each type ofinterface and higher interfacial pressure (8.02→11.59bar) led to improved breakdown strength about 50% forXLPE-XLPE interface whereas the enhancement for themuch softer interface (i.e. silicon rubber) was about 7%under increasing pressure (1.34→2.67 bar).Additionally, breakdown strength of silicon rubberinterface was found to be higher than that of XLPEinterface around 53% at the same applied pressure.

Transmission characteristics of the S0 and A0 Lamb waves at contacting edges of plates

In order to gain basic insight into the interaction between ultrasonic guided waves and structural discontinuities with contacting surfaces, the transmission characteristics of Lamb waves at contacting edges of two plates are studied experimentally. The edges of two 2.5-mm thick aluminum alloy plates are mated together to constitute a contacting interface of plates and subjected to different levels of compressive loading. The transmission measurements of the lowest-order symmetric (S0) and antisymmetric (A0) Lamb modes across the contacting interface are performed in a frequency range below the cut-off frequencies of the higher-order modes. As a result, it is found that the transmission coefficient of the S0 mode increases monotonically with the applied contact pressure, but the transmission coefficient of the A0 mode exhibits non-monotonic dependence on the contact pressure and the frequency showing a local minimum. For the incidence of the S0 mode, the resonance at the contacting interface is observed as a long-time oscillation tail in the transmission waveform. The resonance frequency is found to increase with the contact pressure. The experimental results are discussed in the light of the theoretical results based on the spring-type interface model. The normal and tangential stiffnesses of the contacting interface are identified from the transmission coefficients as well as from the resonance frequency. The estimated interfacial stiffnesses increase monotonically with the contact pressure, and indicate their dependence on the frequency. Implications of the present results to the Lamb-wave based characterization of the plate contact condition are discussed briefly.

Factors influencing the tangential AC breakdown strength of solid-solid interfaces

The combination of two solid dielectrics (interface) increases the risk of formation of microscopic cavities reducing the breakdown strength (BDS) of the interface considerably, particularly when the electric field has a tangential component. The main purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of the applied contact pressure and composite elastic modulus on the tangential ac BDS of the solid-solid interfaces experimentally. In the experiments, three different contact pressures were applied using different mechanical loads with two different materials having different elastic moduli, i.e. cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) and silicon rubber (SiR). Two rectangular prism shaped samples were placed between two vertical Rogowski shaped electrodes either in air or oil. The type of the interface (air/oil) is highlighted duly upon showing the results. Increase in contact pressure caused relatively higher increase in the tangential BDS of dry SiR-SiR (assembled in air) than that of XLPE-XLPE, revealing that elastic modulus facilitated significantly to reduce the mean void size in SiR that in turn improved the tangential BDS. Likewise, the tangential BDS of hybrid interfaces formed by XLPE-SiR specimens increased by 43% compared to that of XLPE-XLPE interface at the same pressure. Additionally, the same set of experiments assembled in oil reveals that the presence of oil enhanced the tangential BDSs around 2-3 times for all three-interface cases. Moreover, with the increase of applied pressure the tangential BDS of air-filled and oil-filled cavities tended to get significantly higher.

Spherical indentation of porous ceramics: Cracking and toughness

A combined experimental-numerical approach is used to characterise the fracture of a porous bulk ceramic material (La0.6Sr0.4Co0.2Fe0.8O3) with porosities of 5–45%, undergoing spherical indentation. The Gurson model was used in FEM to describe the porosity densification. Indentation-induced radial cracks were observed, when the applied contact pressure exceeded threshold values, with no Hertzian ring-cone cracks found. FEM analysis indicated that the cracks propagated mainly during unloading, driven by the tensile hoop stress generated near the contact circle. The stress intensity at the crack tip was estimated using an approximate analysis of the FEM stress field to derive toughness values that were consistent with values determined by conventional methods, provided that the crack length is sufficiently large compared with the contact radius and can be measured accurately. The absence of ring-cone cracks during loading is due to the material’s high modulus-to-hardness ratio and the small indenter radius as predicted by established theory.

Properties of contact pressure induced by manually operated fiber-optic probes.

We assess the properties of contact pressure applied by manually operated fiber-optic probes as a function of the operator, probe contact area, and sample stiffness. First, the mechanical properties of human skin sites with different skin structures, thicknesses, and underlying tissues were studied by in vivo indentation tests. According to the obtained results, three different homogeneous silicone skin phantoms were created to encompass the observed range of mechanical properties. The silicon phantoms were subsequently used to characterize the properties of the contact pressure by 10 experienced probe operators employing fiber-optic probes with different contact areas. A custom measurement system was used to collect the time-lapse of diffuse reflectance and applied contact pressure. The measurements were characterized by a set of features describing the transient and steady-state properties of the contact pressure and diffuse reflectance in terms of rise time, optical coupling, average value, and variability. The average applied contact pressure and contact pressure variability were found to significantly depend on the probe operator, probe contact area, and surprisingly also on the sample stiffness. Based on the presented results, we propose a set of practical guidelines for operators of manual probes.

Microstructural and Tribological Properties of Al2O3-13pctTiO2 Thermal Spray Coatings Deposited by Flame Spraying

THe present investigation has been conducted to study the tribological properties of Al2O3-13pctTiO2 (AT-13) ceramic coatings deposited on a low carbon steel type E335 by using a thermal flame spray technique. The microstructure and phase composition of wire and coatings were analyzed by scanning electron microscope, energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Measurements of micro hardness were also performed on the surface of the coatings. The tribological tests were carried out using a pin-on-disk tribometer at different loads. All tests were performed using two disks as counter body, namely Al2O3-ZrO2 (AZ-25) and Al2O3-TiO2 (AT-3) which formed couple 1 and couple 2, respectively, in order to work out the wear rate and friction coefficient. Roughness profiles were also evaluated before and after each test. The SEM showed that the dense microstructure of Al2O3-TiO2 (AT-13) coatings have a homogenous lamellar morphology and complex of several phases with the presence of porosities and unmelted particles. The XRD analysis of the wire before the spray showed a majority phase of α-Al2O3 rhombohedral structure and a secondary phase of Al2TiO5 orthorhombic structure with little traces of TiO2 (rutile) tetragonal structure, whereas the XRD of the coating revealed the disappearance of TiO2 replaced by the formation of a new metastable phase γ-Al2O3 cubic structure. The tribological results showed that the applied contact pressure affects the variation of the friction coefficient with time and that it decreases with the rise of the normal force of contact. It was found also that the couple 2 with nearly chemical compositions of spray-coated (AT-13) and disk (AT-3) exhibited much higher wear resistance than the couple 1 although they have sliding coefficient of friction nearly.

Modeling and analysis of wet friction clutch engagement dynamics

In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the usage of wet-friction clutches. Presently researchers across the globe are involved in improving the performance and lifetime of clutches through testing and simulation. To understand the clutch vibrational and dynamical behavior, an SAE#2 test setup mathematical model based on extended reset-integrator friction model is developed in this paper. In order to take into account the different phases of fluid lubrication during engagement cycle, the model includes the experimentally determined Stribeck function. In addition the model considers the viscous effect and the delay in the actuation pressure signal. The model is validated with the experiments performed on the SAE#2 test setup in both time and frequency domains. By analyzing the set of experimental results, we confirmed that the amplitude of shudder vibration is independent of the amplitude of applied contact pressure fluctuation.

Effects of multi-walled carbon nanotubes addition on thermal properties of thermal grease

Improving the thermal conduction ability of thermal interface materials (TIMs) can enhance heat transfer in electronics packages and reduce chip temperature. In the present work, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) are used as additives for enhancing the thermal conductivity of the widely-used TIM silicone grease. The effects of the MWCNTs length and surface treatment on the silicone grease conductivity are studied. The results show that the MWCNT length has strong influences on the thermal performance of the grease with MWCNT additives. The equivalent thermal conductivity of the composite layer of the grease and the solid surfaces increases as the MWCNT length decreases. Only the length of MWCNTs is short enough, their addition can improve the thermal performance of the common silicone grease. Surface treatment on MWCNTs can improve the thermal performance of the grease. Through transmission electron microscope (TEM) observation it is found that after the modification of the short MWCNTs the MWCNT entanglement phenomenon in the mother silicone grease is weakened and the MWCNTs are dispersed more uniformly. The influence of the contact pressure on the thermal performance of the MWCNT TIMs is also investigated. The results show that the thermal resistance of the composite layer formed with different TIMs all decreases with the applied contact pressure, but the TIMs with the addition of the short and chemically treated MWCNTs are less sensitive to the contact pressure.

Friction of viscoelastic elastomers with rough surfaces under torsional contact conditions

Frictional properties of contacts between a smooth viscoelastic rubber and rigid surfaces are investigated using a torsional contact configuration where a glass lens is continuously rotated on the rubber surface. From the inversion of the displacement field measured at the surface of the rubber, spatially resolved values of the steady state frictional shear stress are determined within the nonhomogeneous pressure and velocity fields of the contact. For contacts with a smooth lens, a velocity-dependent but pressure-independent local shear stress is retrieved from the inversion. On the other hand, the local shear stress is found to depend on both velocity and applied contact pressure when a randomly rough (sand-blasted) glass lens is rubbed against the rubber surface. As a result of changes in the density of microasperity contacts, the amount of light transmitted by the transparent multicontact interface is observed to vary locally as a function of both contact pressure and sliding velocity. Under the assumption that the intensity of light transmitted by the rough interface is proportional to the proportion of area into contact, it is found that the local frictional stress can be expressed experimentally as the product of a purely velocity-dependent term, k(v), by a term representing the pressure and velocity dependence of the actual contact area, A/A(0). A comparison between k(v) and the frictional shear stress of smooth contacts suggests that nanometer scale dissipative processes occurring at the interface predominate over viscoelastic dissipation at microasperity scale.

Subharmonic Wave Generation at Interfaces of a Thin Layer between Metal Blocks

Subharmonic waves were significantly generated at the interfaces of aluminum blocks and an aluminum foil subjected to a 6 MHz burst incident wave. Although the fundamental wave amplitude was linearly varied with input voltage, the subharmonic waves generated at the interfaces indicated strong nonlinearity. Analyzing the relationship of the subharmonic wave generation, the applied contact pressure, and the stress of the ultrasonic wave has revealed that subharmonic components can be generated when the incident ultrasonic wave has sufficiently large stress to separate the contacting interfaces. At rough surfaces, the subharmonic peak could not be observed because a large true contact pressure prevented the interfaces from separating.

Pressure-induced near infrared spectra response as a valuable source of information for soft tissue classification

Acquiring near infrared spectra in vivo usually requires a fiber-optic probe to be pressed against the tissue. The applied pressure can significantly affect the optical properties of the underlying tissue, and thereby the acquired spectra. The existing studies consider these effects to be distortions. In contrast, we hypothesize that the pressure-induced spectral response is site- and tissue-specific, providing additional information for the tissue classification. For the purpose of this study, a custom system was designed for dynamic pressure control and rapid acquisition of spectra. The pressure-induced spectral response was studied at three proximate skin sites of the human hand. The diffuse reflectance and scattering were found to decrease with the applied contact pressure. In contrast, the concentrations of chromophores, and consequently the absorption, increased with the applied contact pressure. The pressure-induced changes in the tissue optical properties were found to be site-specific and were modeled as a polynomial function of the applied contact pressure. A quadratic discriminant analysis classification of the tissue spectra acquired at the three proximate skin sites, based on the proposed pressure-induced spectral response model, resulted in a high (90%) average classification sensitivity and specificity, clearly supporting the working hypothesis.

Hot stamping: manufacturing functional optimized components

Due to rising requirements regarding passenger safety and weight reduction hot stamped components get more and more important regarding security relevant parts because of their high strength. Currently, the new challenge is manufacturing components with locally adjusted mechanical properties in order to simultaneously guarantee structural integrity and energy absorption in case of a crash. Therefore, the so called Tailored Tempering process is a promising strategy controlling the cooling rate of the austenitized blank by local heating of the tool and consequently adjusting microstructure development and resulting mechanical properties. As the adjustment of mechanical properties is a temperature dependent process which is also influenced by process parameters and contact conditions, accurate process knowledge is essential. Within this paper the influence of tool temperature and applied contact pressure on the resulting heat transfer coefficient as well as contact condition between the surfaces of former investigations will be shown in a short overview. Based on the results of these fundamental investigations, design principles for Tailored Tempering process will be derived. Furthermore, a hat-profile geometry will be investigated experimentally and characterized by mechanical tests as well as geometrical aspects like sheet thickness and distortion. Additionally, an FE-Modell based on the results of the thermo-mechanical characterization is build up and validated by comparison with the results of experimental work.

Validation experiments for lower-bound shakedown theory applied to layered pavement systems

Experiments involving the application of moving-wheel loads to a series of two- and three-layered pavement systems, involving various soils and unbound granular materials, were used to determine the applied contact pressure ranges within which the structures may be assumed to have developed a ‘shakedown' condition. Shakedown implies that the pavement responds to loading in a resilient manner after some limited plastic deformation during the early load applications. The data were used to assess the validity of applying three-dimensional lower-bound shakedown theory to pavements as a basis for improving pavement design computations. The research indicated that this approach has considerable promise, and that further experimental validation work is desirable.