Applications In Sustainable Production Research Articles

Evaluation and Assessment of Additive Manufacturing Processes Based on the Least Energy Demand in Application for Sustainable Production

This paper presents the Least Energy Demand as an independent reference value for evaluating energy efficiency of additive manufacturing (AM) processes. Nowadays an essential challenge is represented by a proper evaluation and calculation of the energy efficiency of production processes. The reason for this is the lack of appropriate reference values. A comprehensive comparison of the energy efficiency is not possible without consistent reference values. However, this comparison serves as a first step towards the goal in order to reveal the actual energy savings potential of additive manufacturing procedures and to take actions on this basis. Therefore, the first step is to define the general concept, which is used for the calculation of the Least Energy Demand. Moreover, the unit operation-specific Least Energy Demand EGM is introduced based on unit operations. In conclusion, the importance of EGM as a reference value for evaluating the energy efficiency of production processes, defined in DIN 8580, is explained. Within the scope of an application of the illustrated concept the Least Energy Demand and the Relative Energy Efficiency (REE) are calculated using the example of a selective laser melting process.

Adaptation to climate change in industry: improving resource efficiency through sustainable production applications.

The objective of this study was to investigate the climate change adaptation opportunities of six companies from different sectors through resource efficiency and sustainable production. A total of 77 sustainable production options were developed for the companies based on the audits conducted. After screening these opportunities with each company's staff, 19 options were selected and implemented. Significant water savings (849,668 m3/year) were achieved as a result of the applications that targeted reduction of water use. In addition to water savings, the energy consumption was reduced by 3,607 MWh, which decreased the CO2 emissions by 904.1 tons/year. Moreover, the consumption of 278.4 tons/year of chemicals (e.g., NaCl, CdO, NaCN) was avoided, thus the corresponding pollution load to the wastewater treatment plant was reduced. Besides the tangible improvements, other gains were achieved, such as improved product quality, improved health and safety conditions, reduced maintenance requirements, and ensured compliance with national and EU regulations. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this study is the first ever activity in Turkey devoted to climate change adaptation in the private sector. This study may serve as a building block in Turkey for the integration of climate change adaptation and mitigation approach in the industry, since water efficiency (adaptation) and carbon reduction (mitigation) are achieved simultaneously.

AN EFFICIENT METHOD FOR CRYOPRESERVATION OF ST JOHN¿S WORT AND TOBACCO: ROLE OF MELATONIN

International trade in medicinal plants is a major force in the current global economy and the demand of natural health products is increasing in developing and industrialized nations. Unfortunately, one third of all plant species and medicinal plants in particular, are under threat of extinction due to indiscriminate harvest, diseases, and reduced habitats. In vitro culture and cryopreservation techniques can ensure safety of these species and have potential applications in sustainable production and use of plant based medicines. The objective of this study was to develop an efficient cryopreservation protocol for in vitro maintained lines of medicinal plants using St John's Wort and tobacco as experimental systems. Shoot tips of in vitro-grown plantlets were successfully cryopreserved in liquid nitrogen at -196°C under controlled environment conditions following melatonin treatment and cold acclimation (CA) with either vitrification or encapsulation-vitrification methods. The explants showed optimal re-growth following cryopreservation when treated with the Plant Vitrification Solution #2 (PVS2) for 20 min on ice. Addition of the antioxidant melatonin (0.1-0.5 µM) added to both pre-culture and re-growth media significantly improved the recovery of plants with 80 to 100% re-growth of cryopreserved shoots. The melatonin based protocol for improved recovery of cryopreserved tissue may serve as an important tool for long-term storage and security of germplasm of medicinal plant species.

Sustainable textile production: a case study from a woven fabric manufacturing mill in Turkey

The aim of this research was to investigate the applicability of different sustainable production measures and demonstrate environmental and economical benefits in a woven fabric manufacturing mill in Bursa, Turkey. As a result of an Environmental Performance Evaluation (EPE) evaluation, five sustainable production applications were proposed and implemented to decrease water consumption, wastewater generation, energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions and salt (NaCl) consumption in the company. As a result, the total water consumption of the company was decreased 40.2% while wastewater generation was reduced by 43.4%. Total energy consumption and associated CO2 emissions of the company were decreased 17.1 and 13.5%, respectively. While total salt (NaCl) consumption was decreased by 46.0%. The payback period was calculated as approximately 1.5 months. This study can be regarded as a successful example of adoption of “Communique of Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control in Textile Sector” with tangible economical and environmental achievements in the Turkish textile industry. The results of the study show that the wide-spread uptake of proposed sustainable production measures would generate a tremendous change in the Turkish textile industry without a need for heavy investments in technology. Moreover the economic returns would help Turkish textile industry to sustain its competitive position in the global textile market which faces a pressing challenge of low cost, high quality and environmentally benign production.

Applications in sustainable production

Capsicum plants (Capsicum annuum L. cv. Lamuyo) were grown in controlled greenhouse conditions in artificial soil. The plants received increasing levels of N (6, 12, 18 and 24 g/m2) and K (4, 8 and 12 g/m2), complemented with other nutrients. On plants leaves sampled fortnightly throughout their growth cycle to measure the cations (C+: NH4 +, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+), anions (A: SO4 2‐, Cl‐, P2O4 ‐, NO), protons (H+), ascorbic and citric acid, and total organic anions. Our results showed an increase in foliar inorganic anions proportionnai to the NK doses applied. In general, citric acid gave a lower values in the lower NK doses, whereas, the higher values were obtained with the higher doses. No clear response was observed of ascorbic acid to the doses of NK as the highest leaf value was achieved, with the low NK levels. The internal cationic excess led to an increase in hydrogen ions, either extruded or integrated into the tissue. The values of the H+/Norg and C+‐A‐/Norg ratios increased as increased K1 to K3, with the combinations of N1, N2 and N3, with an inverse trend in N4.

Applications in sustainable production

Low root temperature has previously been reported to induce boron (B) deficiency in some species but the mechanism is not entirely clear. Using B‐specific resin to buffer B concentrations in solution, we found that decreasing root zone temperature (RZT) from 27 to 12°C for 6 days depressed sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) dry matter, root length, root to shoot ratio and B uptake. Boron uptake into the shoots was depressed at 12°C RZT to a greater relative extent than dry matter. Furthermore, B partitioning to young leaves decreased with low RZT, particularly at 12°C RZT. The external B requirement for shoot growth increased with low RZT. Leaf functioning was impaired by low B supply as measured by K+ leakage from the youngest mature leaf blade, whereas it was much less affected by RZT, and there was no effect of RZT on B ‐ adequate plants. By contrast, root function was impaired more by low RZT than low B. Therefore, we predict that higher rates of B application will be required for plant growth when soil temperature is below a critical threshold, which for sunflower was about 17°C. Conversely, practices which increase soil temperature above the threshold may also improve plant B nutrition.

Applications in sustainable production

Magnesium is the central element in the structural unit of chlorophyll but there appears to be a lack of awareness of the importance of magnesium in plant production and it has not always being given due recognition in fertilizer application considerations. To determine the balance between inputs and outputs of magnesium in a cropping system, a 12 month field study investigated its accumulation and distribution relative to calcium in taro (Colocasia esculenta), a staple food and cash crop in the Pacific Islands, grown on a Fluventic Eutropept. Magnesium and calcium inputs were accounted for through additions of fertilizer, irrigation water and rainfall while outputs were measured by crop uptake/removal. A partitioning of the biomass was made to trace magnesium and calcium distribution in the various parts of the plants (leaf, petiole, root and corm) during growth to maturity. During early growth, magnesium and calcium accumulation occurred mostly in the leaves and petioles. Towards maturity there appeared to be a decline in the leaf and petiole content with an increase in the corm suggesting a translocation of magnesium and calcium to the corm. At final harvest, magnesium and calcium removed from the system by taro harvesting was calculated at 6 and 15 kg ha‐1 yr‐1, respectively.

Applications in sustainable production

Estimation of the nitrogen delivery of grassland in temperate regions is possible through measurement of the organic N content of the top layer. Organic nitrogen is built up under recently sown grassland until equilibrium is reached ('old’ grasslands). Comparison of the actual soil organic N content with this equilibrium makes it possible to determine the nitrogen delivery (Hassink, 1995). To determine this equilibrium, the soil layers 0–6 cm, 0–15 cm and 0–23 cm of 40 unfertilised old grasslands in Belgium with different soil textures (clay, loam, sandy loam and sand) were analysed for their organic N‐content and granulometric composition (9 fractions). From these fields it was found that the soil organic N‐content correlated with the texture. For determination of the nitrogen delivery, 31 unfertilised experimental fields were set up, on which dry matter yield and nitrogen delivery were determined. NFNS (non fertiliser nitrogen supply, kg N/ha.yr) =139.1 ‐ 445.6 *?orgN (r2=0.63)(%, AorgN = orgNeq ‐ orgNact; sampling depth 0–15 cm and texture fraction 0–20μ). The remaining variation in the data set may be partially explained by the water delivery capacity, as suggested by individual results. By taking into account N delivery capacity and probably also water delivery capacity, N fertiliser recommendations can be tuned to the specific characteristics of a field. Thereby, N‐fertilisation may sometimes be increased for some fields, whilst for others a decrease of the N‐fertilisation may be possible without loss of yield.

Applications in sustainable production

Capsicum plants were grown under controlled greenhouse conditions and different combinations of NK dosage were applied to the crop resulting in 12 treatments. Leaf levels of pigments and nonstructural carbohydrates were analysed and fruit yield was determined. The best yield results were obtained with a fertirrigation of N180K40. The effect of joint NK fertilization was most acutely observed on the leaf levels of chlorophyll a and carotenoids. In general, carbohydrates also showed the effects of NK interaction. The chlorophyll a is a good indicator or at least the best indicator found in the present experiment of the effect of NK fertilization. Applying doses of N and K together favoured the processes of chlorophyll and carbohydrate synthesis. The use of the optimum fertilization formulae would reduce the economic and ecological impact caused by the application of high levels of N and K.

Applications in sustainable production

It is known that there are several factors affecting potassium fixation and release in soils. Wetting and drying as well as freezing and thawing are considered to be of primary importance among these. In our previous experiments, potassium fixation of different soil types and nutrient levels was evaluated as well as the significance of soil properties controlling fixation capacities of soils. The objective of this experiment was to study the influence of a relatively high and a low temperature (25°C and 0°C) on potassium fixation capacities of selected soils. Soil samples were taken from seven sites of multilocation long‐term fertilization trials. Exchangeable K content (Kex) in soils at both temperatures was significantly determined by soil characteristics, fertilizer rates and temperature. On the other hand, wet and dry K fixation (Kwf and Kdf) were dependent on soil characteristics. From the results of a stepwise regression analyses, it was established that soil parameters and mineralogy plays a significant role in the relationship between wet and dry K fixation. After evaluating the effect of temperature on exchangeable potassium content, it was concluded that at 25°C, 40.7 percent of the value of Kex could be attributed to soil K2O content, total quantity of kaolinite plus chlorites in soils. At 0°C, 63.5 percent of the value of exchangeable K was attributed to soil K2O, humus and illite content. Comparing the correlation coefficients obtained for the variables studied, it was concluded that the correlation between Kex and Kwf was the closest.

Applications in sustainable production

Capsicum plants were grown under controlled conditions and submitted to individual fertilization with varying rates of NK. N was applied as NH4NO3 (N1: 6 g m‐2, N2: 12 g m‐2, N3: 18 g m‐2and N4: 24 g m‐2) and K as K2SO4 (K1: 4 g m‐2, K2: 8 g m‐2and K3: 12 g m‐2), resulting in 12 treatments of the corresponding crosses between the different rates of N and K. Applying high rates of N and K led to an increase in the absorption and translocation of NO to the shoot, however, the trend of the NR in the two assays studied (NRc and NRi) and that of NH indicate that this latter ion was the main N form assimilated by the plant. The products resulting from this process, mainly proteins, increased with higher N and K rates, which also gave rise to the maximum leaf concentrations of organic and total P forms, while inorganic P was unaffected. The acid phosphatase activity proved to be a good indicator of the nutritional status of P. Finally, yield in Kg plant‐1 was maximum at N3K1, whereas the greatest number of fruits were maximum at the N4K3 rate.

Applications in sustainable production

One of the challenges of soil testing has been to develop rapid tests. Our ability to design new soil, plant and water analyses has progressed though the modern ages. One can argue the beginning of soil science, but this paper will address the progress in soil chemical fertility from the 1800's through to the present. From the first descriptions of physical and chemical methods for soil analysis until the present, there have been two requests from growers and field consultants. First, the process from sampling through reporting of the results must occur more rapidly. Second, the process must require less effort from the sampler and less material sampled. With the advent of modern computers, remote sensing tools, automated in‐field data acquisition and automated application of amendments for crop production, there is constant pressure from the users of these tools to speed up the sampling and analytical process. These users have often requested non‐destructive sampling and analysis plus recommendations for application of crop production amendments that can occur simultaneously. This paper will discuss the brief history of soil science and make predictions about the near future in relation to these demands of the end users of soil, plant and water analysis.

Applications in sustainable production

In conventional solution culture, differences in boron (B) concentration among plant parts and in distribution over time are often confounded with declining B supply. Using a B‐buffered solution system which maintained solutions at values that ranged from deficient to adequate, we examined B uptake and distribution in canola (Brassica napus L.) at 3 growth stages: 10 and 22 days after transplanting (DAT) and at early flowering (55 DAT). Boron concentrations in shoots and roots increased strongly with increasing solution B concentrations up to 1–2 μM B and then more weakly with increases in solution B above 2 μM B. At deficient to marginal external B concentrations, stems had higher B concentrations than leaf blades on Days 10 and 22 but not at adequate external B concentrations. In petioles, B concentration remained unchanged from Day 22 to 55 in most B treatments. With increasing external B concentrations, relative B content increased in leaf blades, decreased in roots, and generally remained unchanged in stems and petioles. Although the plants at low external B concentrations (≤ 0.55 μM) maintained vegetative growth they did not produce reproductive parts in contrast to the plants of adequate B. At the flowering stage, maximum B concentration was found in florets and growth of these plant parts was more sensitively depressed by low B than vegetative plant parts. At ≤ 0.41 μM external B concentration, reproductive growth was depressed compared to plants of ≥ 0.86 μM external B concentration, flowering was delayed for 6–8 days, and flowers aborted soon after bud burst.

Applications in sustainable production

The mineral concentration of Australian and overseas brown rice grain was analysed using nitric acid digestion and inductively coupled plasma emission (ICP) spectroscopy. The range of some minerals in the overseas genotypes was greater than in the Australian genotypes. Yield and harvest index are negatively correlated to concentrations of N, S, P, Mg, Cu, Na and Zn in the brown grain. Rice genotypes were also grouped statistically using a cluster analysis, and common features of each group were examined. Common features of groups included country of origin, mineral concentration, yield, harvest index and number of days to flowering.

Applications in sustainable production

Farmers in the lower corn belt region of the United States need to know how to fertilize soils in order to optimize the efficiency of potassium (K) use by plants under different tillage systems and with high yield management. A field study was conducted from 1994 to 1996 at the Dixon Springs Agricultural Center (DSAC) on a Bonnie silt loam (fine‐silty, mixed, mesic Typic Fluvaquent) soil and at the SIU Belleville Research Center (BRC) on a Herrick silt loam (fine, montmorillonitic, mesic Aquic Argiudoll) soil. No‐till (NT) and spring chisel tillage (CT) systems were compared in a corn (Zea mays L.)‐soybean (Glycine max L.) rotation. Within each tillage system, K rates of 56, 112 and 168 kg K ha‐1 as potassium chloride were combined with four placement methods that included surface broadcast, 25‐cm surface band over the intended row, surface dribble 15 cm to the side of the intended row, and starter placement of 28 kg K ha‐1 5 cm to the side and 5 cm below the seed at planting (with the remainder of the K surface broadcast). The broadcast K placement most often produced the lowest whole plant K composition of corn or soybean tissue when sampled within a month after emergence. This indicated that the broadcast treatment was less efficient than other placement methods in providing K in the early stages of plant development. However, by the reproductive stage of development, there were no differences in leaf K concentrations among the various placement methods for either crop. Increasing K rates almost always increased leaf K concentrations and usually increased early plant growth and yields. Early plant growth and grain yield were affected to a greater degree in corn than soybean. Soybean yields appeared to maximize at 56 kg K ha‐1, whereas corn often showed higher yields (although not always significant) with K rates of 112 and 168 kg ha‐1. Corn usually requires more K than soybean, which would explain its greater responsiveness to K. For corn, the placement method of K was not as critical as rate, even for no‐till, across the six site‐years of this study. Lower yields occurred in 1996 at both locations with the long term banding of K fertilizers over the intended rows of soybean. This is in contrast to a yield benefit from surface banding at other locations or crops as reported in the literature. Weather problems related to a wet spring followed by dry conditions late in the season may have contributed to the atypical results in 1996. These weather problems probably either lead to larger plants early which ran out of water late in the season, or higher accumulated salt concentrations in the root volume which reduced water uptake late in the season.

Applications in sustainable production

Capsicum annuum plants were grown under controlled greenhouse conditions. Increasing doses of NK fertilizers were applied and sulphure (S) and its forms were determined in leaves for all the treated plants. Our results showed that leaf S concentrations were related to the influence of NK applied. The highest concentrations of total S were obtained with the treatment in which the rhizospheric concentration of N was low, while K was intermediate, thus N has a more direct effect than K on leaf levels of total and organic S. In the case of sulphate (SO4 ‐) concentration, the behaviour was often closely related to total S. The ratios or S index were used also as an possible indicator of the overall degree or level of S in plants.

Applications in sustainable production

Capsicum plants grown under controlled conditions underwent crossed fertilization with N (four levels) and K (three levels) totalling 12 combination of NK dosages. The plants were sampled throughout their growth cycle and the leaves were analyzed to measure total and soluble Ca and Mg, and their fractions. Soluble Mg showed its lowest leaf level in the treatment N4K3, whereas the highest value was obtained at N1K3. Total Mg has the maximum leaf levels at N1K2, whereas the lowest levels occurred in the treatment N2K1. The various fractions of Mg showed different degrees of importance and in the present study the order of importance was: Pectate‐Mg<Residual‐Mg<Organic acid anion‐Mg<Organic anion‐Mg<Chlorophyll‐Mg. Soluble Ca showed its lowest leaf level in the treatment N3K3, whereas the highest value was obtained at N4K1. Total Ca has the maximum leaf levels at N4K3, whereas the lowest levels occurred in the treatment N1K2. The increasing NK supply directly or indirectly affects the integration of the ionic forms of Ca in plant tissues as Ca was integrated in proportions which indicated the growing conditions of the crop, with the following order: Oxalate‐Ca > Inorganic‐Ca > Pectate‐Ca ≈ Residual‐Ca > Phosphate‐Ca

Applications in sustainable production

It is well‐known that different maize (Zea Mays L.) hybrids can utilize N‐fertilizers to different degrees. Experiments are needed to determine their N utilization manifesting itself in dry weight production and within that in grain weight. The chemical analysis of the plants can give us further information about their quality parameters. Fertilization model experiments were conducted with two maize hybrids (Pioneer 3732 and Volga) of similar yield potential in green house using large pots (40 kg dry clay lessivated brown forest soil per pot) in three experimental years (1993–95). 150 mg N kg‐1 soil was applied in form of NH4NO3 or KNO3. In addition, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers were added too. The plants were grown under two different soil water regimes (65% and 80% water holding capacity) up to full ripening (from May to the middle of September). Compared with the unfertilized control plants, the dry weight of the whole plants and grains in the fertilized treatments was 2–2.5‐fold and 3–4‐fold higher, respectively, on the three years’ average. Volga showed a more favorable response to N‐fertilization, as regards N‐forms, to NO3‐N. The more beneficial effect of N‐fertilization on this hybrid appeared in greater grain yield production, too. The nitrogen harvest index of both hybrids amounted to about 40, 30 and 30% in the KNO3‐, NH4Cl‐ and unfertilized treatments, respectively. The water demand of the hybrids was different, too. Volga produced more dry weight under drier soil conditions. The N‐uptake of both hybrids was considerably higher from the NO3‐N source than from the NH4‐N one, and NO3‐accumulation could be detected in the grains, in ones of Pioneer 3732 to a higher extent. This suggests that nitrate reduction could also take place in the grains. N‐accumulation in the different plant parts was also examined. The yearly variation in the tested parameters was more expressed with the unfertilized plants than with the fertilized ones.

Applications in sustainable production

Major factors that contribute to the yield responses of groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) to fertilizer and physico‐chemical properties were to be derived and identified; the experiments were conducted on eight Philippine soils (Alfisol, two Andisols, Entisol, two Inceptisols, Ultisol and Vertisol) collected from different places on Luzon Island. These soils were placed in 10m x 20m x 0.5m concrete frames (soil tank). Groundnut and maize were grown under the same agronomic conditions during 1995–1996. Results showed that groundnut yields were positively correlated to fertilizer nitrogen, soil nitrogen and soil extractable phosphate but negatively to soil pH; Groundnut yield (t ha‐1) = 6.238 + 0.007 x N (kg ha‐1) + 2.615 x T‐N (%) + 0.002 x Extr. P (mg kg‐1) ‐ 0.591 x pH, (R2 0.74). For maize, fertilizer nitrogen and phosphate and soil nitrogen contributed positively to the yield, but negatively with soil pH and exchangeable magnesium; maize yield (t ha‐1) = 4.348 + 0.029 x N (kg ha‐1) + 0.037 x P (kg ha‐1) + 9.956 x T‐N (%) ‐0.522 x pH ‐ 0.072 Exch. Mg (cmol kg‐1), (R2= 0.87).

Applications in sustainable production

An experiment was set up to determine the most important effect of the graperootstock‐scion interaction in vineyard on the experimental plot of the University at the West edge of Lake Balaton. Three scion varieties were grafted on six rootstocks resulting in 18 combinations of graftings. All the development each of the graftings was examined and surveyed separately. Based on leaf analysis results we can gain data about the interaction of rootstock and scion varieties concerning mineral nutrition of the grafts, its differences and characteristics. In the present study we give account of leaves originated from vines grown same soil type and nutrient condition. Statistically significant differences were found in the yield production and Ca concentration of scion leaf blades according to the rootstocks as well according to the scions also. After the first yield production year the differences in K and Ca contents of the leaves were greater by the scion varieties than the rootstocks. The highest Ca concentrations were determined at the scion leaves with combination of Georgikon 28 {(V. berlandieri x V. riparia T. K. 5BB) x V. vinifera} rootstock. The differences in Ca concentrations were higher according to the scion varieties. It shows not only the rootstocks or the scions influences the nutrient supply of the vines, but the combinations of these two components is very important from this point of view.