Bioprinting Applications Research Articles

High-Performance Sunlight-Induced Polymerized Hydrogels and Applications in 3D and 4D Printing.

Currently, there are only few reports on water-soluble photoinitiating systems. In this study, a highly water-soluble organic dye i.e. sodium (E)-3,3'-((4-(2-(3-methylbenzo[d]thiazol-3-ium-2-yl)vinyl)phenyl)azanediyl)dipropionate iodide, was synthesized and served as a photoinitiator. Notably, this water-soluble initiator, at a low concentration of just 0.01 wt%, demonstrates a high photoinitiation ability, with some hydrogel formulations achieving nearly 100% double bond conversion under sunlight. Photopolymerization kinetics were monitored using Real-Time Fourier Transform Infrared. To explore the complex chemical principles of radical polymerization, UV-visible absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy, steady-state photolysis, fluorescence quenching experiments and cyclic voltammetry were employed to gain a comprehensive understanding of the photochemical mechanism involved. Additionally, several characteristics of the synthesized hydrogels were also investigated i.e. the water content, the water swelling, and the volume swelling. In addition to their excellent photoinitiation capabilities, the hydrogel formulations developed in this study also supported 3D printing. 3D objects with smooth surface and a high spatial resolution could be successfully printed using direct laser writing. The fabricated hydrogels could reversibly change of shape in response to water (adding or removing water), enabling successful 4D printing behavior. Furthermore, the efficient photoinitiation ability of the water-soluble formulations opens new avenues for sunlight-polymerized hydrogels and potential applications in bioprinting.

Injectable Self-Healing and Anti-Dissolving Low-Molecular-Weight Hydrogels Enabled by Ionic Cross-Linking for Cell Encapsulation.

Injectable behavior is often observed in polymer-based hydrogels yet is rarely achieved in low-molecular-weight hydrogels (LMWHs), the realization of which may boost the development of new soft materials for biomedical applications. Here, we report on injectable self-healing and antidissolving LMWHs that are formed through a simple ionic cross-linking strategy, showing a fundamental application for the encapsulation of living cells. The LMWHs are formed by simply mixing Ca2+ with negatively charged supramolecular polymers. Surprisingly, the resultant hydrogels are capable of rapidly self-healing within seconds after damage, showing an unexpected injectable function. When the hydrogel is injected into an aqueous medium, continuous macroscopic hydrogel fibers can be produced. Interestingly, the hydrogel can remain intact in the aqueous medium, showing impressive antidissolving behavior which is less observed in other LMWHs. Furthermore, the hydrogel is demonstrated to be nontoxic and can be used as a cytocompatible scaffold for living cells. This work may open an avenue toward injectable and antidissolving LMWHs for the ever-expanding list of applications in biotherapy and bioprinting.

Simultaneous processing of both handheld biomixing and biowriting of kombucha cultured pre-crosslinked nanocellulose bioink for regeneration of irregular and multi-layered tissue defects

The nanocellulosic pellicle derived from the symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (Kombucha SCOBY) is an important biomaterial for 3D bioprinting in tissue engineering. However, this nanocellulosic hydrogel has a highly entangled gel network. This needs to be partially modified to improve its processability and extrusion ability for its applications in the 3D bioprinting area. To control its mechanical and biological properties for direct 3D bioprinting applications, uniform reinforcement of nanocellulose-interacting polymers and nanoparticles in such a prefabricated gel network is essential. In this study, the hydrogel network is partially hydrolyzed with organic acid and subsequently transformed into a 3D bioprintable polyelectrolyte complex with chitosan and kaolin nanoparticles without any chemical crosslinker using a handheld 3D bioprinter. This handheld bioprinter ensures homogeneity in both biomixing and bioprinting of chitosan and kaolin within the modified nanocellulose network for multi-layered bioprinted scaffolds through an extensional shear mechanism. The biomixing simulation, mechanical (static, dynamic, and cyclic), 3D bioprinting, and cellular studies confirm the homogeneous biomixing of kaolin nanoparticles and live cells in this nanocellulose-chitosan polyelectrolyte hydrogel. The combination of SCOBY-derived nanocellulose-chitosan bioink with kaolin nanoparticles and a screw-driven handheld extrusion bioprinter demonstrates a promising platform for layer-by-layer regeneration of complex tissues with homogeneous cell/particle distribution with high cell viability.

Advancements in 3D skin bioprinting: processes, bioinks, applications and sensor integration.

This comprehensive review explores the multifaceted landscape of skin bioprinting, revolutionizing dermatological research. The applications of skin bioprinting utilizing techniques like extrusion-, droplet-, laser- and light-based methods, with specialized bioinks for skin biofabrication have been critically reviewed along with the intricate aspects of bioprinting hair follicles, sweat glands, and achieving skin pigmentation. Challenges remain with the need for vascularization, safety concerns, and the integration of automated processes for effective clinical translation. The review further investigates the incorporation of biosensor technologies, emphasizing their role in monitoring and enhancing the wound healing process. While highlighting the remarkable progress in the field, critical limitations and concerns are critically examined to provide a balanced perspective. This synthesis aims to guide scientists, engineers, and healthcare providers, fostering a deeper understanding of the current state, challenges, and future directions in skin bioprinting for transformative applications in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

3D bioprinting for drug development and screening: Recent trends towards personalized medicine

Personalized medicine, leveraging patient-specific genomic data, is revolutionizing treatment paradigms by enabling tailored therapies to individual needs, thus mitigating adverse effects and enhancing clinical outcomes. One innovative application in this field is the use of 3D bioprinting technology to design, develop and screen patient-customized medicines. This technology meticulously designs and develops therapeutic drugs by depositing active pharmaceutical ingredients layer by layer, culminating in a drug delivery structure optimized for the patient's unique dosage requirements. 3D bioprinting represents an emerging confluence of biological sciences and additive manufacturing, meeting the clinical demand for functional biological tissues through the integration of printing technologies, regenerative medicine principles, and advanced material science. This review provides an overview of the current state of 3D bioprinting applications and explores the transformative potential of 3D bioprinting in personalizing medicine. Moreover, the review elucidates the capabilities of 3D bioprinting in drug design, facilitating the production of complex therapeutic regimens in specific dosage forms, such as drugs with tailored dose concentrations, controlled release kinetics, and the capacity to combine multiple therapeutic regimens into a single, easy-to-administer format. This paper also addresses the challenges and obstacles faced in integrating 3D bioprinting techniques into pharmaceutical practice, ranging from technical and regulatory hurdles to scalability. Further, the efficacy of 3D bioprinting as a tool for advancing personalized medicine helps to utilize the full potential of this technology to enhance patient healthcare regimes.

Three-dimensional bioprinted materials in alginate-hyaluronic acid complex based hydrogel based bio-ink as absorbents for heavy metal ions removal

Major environmental and health effects arise from the presence of heavy metals in water, including lead (Pb²⁺), mercury (Hg²⁺), chromium (Cr⁶⁺), cadmium (Cd²⁺), and arsenic (As³⁺), which contribute significantly to water pollution and pose severe risks to ecosystems and human health. This study demonstrates the fabrication of 3D printed self-regenerative functional living materials, a fungi, by using mixture of sodium alginate and hyaluronic acid hydrogel as absorbents to remove the heavy metals from the environment. Bioprinting has emerged as a transformative technology for fabricating complex biological constructs. The bioprinting experiments, conducted with optimized parameters, revealed the viscoelastic behavior of the hydrogel, suitable for 3D bioprinting applications. MicroCT analysis indicated that the hydrogel's porosity and structural properties support fungal growth in a controlled three-dimensional setting. Microscopic analyses, including phase contrast microscopy, FESEM, and HRTEM, provided insights into the cellular morphology of the bioprinted constructs. Cell viability was assessed using flow cytometry with FDA and PI staining, showing a significant population of live cells, affirming the biocompatibility of the hydrogel. Additionally, the study explored the hydrogel's potential for heavy metal removal from water samples. Multi-element standard solutions containing Copper (Cu²⁺), Cadmium (Cd²⁺), Nickel (Ni²⁺), Cobalt (Co²⁺), and Ferrous (Fe³⁺) ions at different concentrations were incubated with hydrogel patches embedded with Aspergillus flavus. Atomic absorption spectrophotometry analysis showed rapid initial removal rates of metal ions, with maximum removal efficiency achieved around the 12th hour. Comparisons with a control hydrogel without the fungal strain demonstrated significantly enhanced removal efficiency due to the presence of Aspergillus flavus. This study highlights the dual functionality of sodium alginate with hyaluronic acid -based hydrogels for bioprinting fungi and for environmental remediation of heavy metals, offering promising applications in environmental cleanup.

Advanced Design and 3D Printing Strategies With Alginate‐Nanoclay Nanocomposites: From Microstructure to Bioprinting

AbstractNanocomposites made from alginate and nanoclay are extensively applied for diverse biomedical applications. However, the lack of a clear understanding of the interactions between alginate and nanoclay makes it difficult to rationally design the nanocomposites for different material extrusion‐based 3D bioprinting strategies. Here, a combined analytical model is proposed to accurately predict the interaction mechanisms between alginate and nanoclay through small‐angle neutron scattering. These mechanisms are summarized into a phase diagram that can guide the design of alginate‐nanoclay nanocomposites for different bioprinting applications. The rheological properties of various nanocomposites are measured to validate the proposed interaction mechanisms at the macroscale. Accordingly, three representative extrusion‐based bioprinting strategies are linked with the nanocomposite design and applied to freeform fabricate complex structures. A roadmap is summarized to bridge the gap between biomaterial design and bioprinting processes, enabling the rapid and rational selection of biomaterial formula based on available 3D printing methods, and vice versa.

Exploring the tunable micro-/macro-structure enabled by alginate-gelatin bioinks for tissue engineering

This study explores the development of optimized alginate-gelatin (AG) bioinks for advanced 3D bioprinting applications, particularly in tissue engineering. Central to our investigation is the establishment of a method for producing AG bioinks with highly tunable viscoelastic properties and the ability to create both macro- and micro-porous scaffolds through a liquid-liquid emulsion technique applied to chemically crosslinked hydrogels and shaped by microextrusion. Our methodology encompasses a comprehensive evaluation of homogenization, pasteurization techniques, and rheological assessments to optimize the mechanical properties of AG hydrogels, ensuring their suitability for bioprinting.The study demonstrates that dynamic homogenization and conventional pasteurization methods yield superior dissolution and sterility of the bioinks, crucial for maintaining optical quality and biological compatibility. Crosslinking optimization significantly enhanced the elasticity and reduced post-crosslinking shrinkage of the hydrogels, a key factor in achieving desired cell viability and function within the engineered tissues. The incorporation of porosity through a controlled liquid-liquid emulsion process was found to enhance cellular interactions and integration within the bioprinted constructs.Our findings confirm that the rheological properties of bioinks play a crucial role in determining bioprintability, with temperature modulation emerging as a key tool for tailoring these characteristics. The biocompatibility and functional performance of the AG hydrogels were validated through in vitro experiments, demonstrating promising cell viability and proliferation. This research lays the groundwork for the development of advanced bioinks capable of supporting complex tissue architectures in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. By marrying the versatility of alginate and gelatin with innovative fabrication techniques, our study advances the frontier of 3D bioprinting, paving the way for the creation of biomimetic tissues with enhanced physiological relevance and therapeutic potential.

On the Relation between the Viscoelastic Properties of Granular Hydrogels and Their Performance as Support Materials in Embedded Bioprinting.

Granular hydrogels, formed by jamming microgels suspension, are promising materials for three-dimensional bioprinting applications. Despite their extensive use as support materials for embedded bioprinting, the influence of the particle's physical properties on the macroscale viscoelasticity on one hand and on the printing performance on the other hand remains unclear. Herein, we investigate the linear and nonlinear rheology of κ-carrageenan granular hydrogel through small- and large-amplitude oscillatory shear measurements. We tuned the granular hydrogel's properties by changing the stiffness (soft, medium, stiff) and the packing density of the individual microgels. Characterizations in the linear viscoelasticity regime revealed that the storage modulus of granular hydrogels is not a simple function of microgel stiffness and depends on the microgel packing density. At larger strains, increasing the microgel stiffness reduced the energy dissipation of the granular beds and increased the solid-fluid transition point. To understand how the different rheological properties of granular support materials influence embedded bioprinting, we examined the printing fidelity and cellular filament shrinkage within the granular beds. We found that microgels with low packing density diminished the printing quality, while stiff microgels promoted filament roughness. In addition, we found that highly packed stiff microgels significantly reduced the postprinting contraction of cellular filaments. Overall, this work provides a comprehensive knowledge of the rheology of granular hydrogels that can be used to rationally design support beds for bioprinting applications with specific characteristics.

The cutting-edge progress in bioprinting for biomedicine: principles, applications, and future perspectives.

Bioprinting is a highly promising application area of additive manufacturing technology that has been widely used in various fields, including tissue engineering, drug screening, organ regeneration, and biosensing. Its primary goal is to produce biomedical products such as artificial implant scaffolds, tissues and organs, and medical assistive devices through software-layered discrete and numerical control molding. Despite its immense potential, bioprinting technology still faces several challenges. It requires concerted efforts from researchers, engineers, regulatory bodies, and industry stakeholders are principal to overcome these challenges and unlock the full potential of bioprinting. This review systematically discusses bioprinting principles, applications, and future perspectives while also providing a topical overview of research progress in bioprinting over the past two decades. The most recent advancements in bioprinting are comprehensively reviewed here. First, printing techniques and methods are summarized along with advancements related to bioinks and supporting structures. Second, interesting and representative cases regarding the applications of bioprinting in tissue engineering, drug screening, organ regeneration, and biosensing are introduced in detail. Finally, the remaining challenges and suggestions for future directions of bioprinting technology are proposed and discussed. Bioprinting is one of the most promising application areas of additive manufacturing technology that has been widely used in various fields. It aims to produce biomedical products such as artificial implant scaffolds, tissues and organs, and medical assistive devices. This review systematically discusses bioprinting principles, applications, and future perspectives, which provides a topical description of the research progress of bioprinting.

Advances in 3D bioprinting for environmental remediation and hazardous materials treatment.

The high-throughput method based on the micron-level structure that 3D bioprinting technology offers for various environmental microbiological engineering applications is made possible by its several printing paths and precision programming control. This versatility makes it an on-demand manufacturing technology. A novel 3D manufacturing technique called 3D bioprinting may be used to precisely uptake and disperse bacteria to create microbial active substances with a variety of intricate functionalities for environmental applications. The technological challenges that the current 3D bioprinting technology must face include the mechanical properties of materials, the creation of specific bioinks to adapt to different strains, and the exploration of 4D bioprinting for intelligent applications. Therefore, this analysis delves deeply into the core technological ideas of 3D bioprinting, bioink materials, and their environmental applications. It also offers recommendations about the challenges and opportunities associated with 3D bioprinting. Combined with the present advancements in microbe enhancement technology, 3D bioprinting will provide an enabling platform for multifunctional microorganisms and facilitate the management of in situ directional responses in the environmental domain. This review highlights the applications of 3D bioprinting in the environmental monitoring and bioremediation. 3D printing in solid waste management is also discussed in detail.

Photo-responsive decellularized small intestine submucosa hydrogels.

Decellularized small intestine submucosa (dSIS) is a promising biomaterial for promoting tissue regeneration. Isolated from the submucosal layer of animal jejunum, SIS is rich in extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, including collagen, laminin, and fibronectin. Following mild decellularization, dSIS becomes an acellular matrix that supports cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation. Conventional dSIS matrix is usually obtained by thermal crosslinking, which yields a soft scaffold with low stability. To address these challenges, dSIS has been modified with methacrylate groups for photocrosslinking into stable hydrogels. However, dSIS has not been modified with clickable handles for orthogonal crosslinking. Here, we report the development of norbornene-modified dSIS, named dSIS-NB, via reacting amine groups of dSIS with carbic anhydride in acidic aqueous reaction conditions. Using triethylamine (TEA) as a mild base catalyst, we obtained high degrees of NB substitution on dSIS. In addition to describing the synthesis of dSIS-NB, we explored its adaptability in orthogonal hydrogel crosslinking and used dSIS-NB hydrogels for cancer and vascular tissue engineering. Impressively, compared with physically crosslinked dSIS and collagen matrices, orthogonally crosslinked dSIS-NB hydrogels supported rapid dissemination of cancer cells and superior vasculogenic and angiogenic properties. dSIS-NB was also exploited as a versatile bioink for 3D bioprinting applications.

Formation of cell spheroids using Standing Surface Acoustic Wave (SSAW).

3D bioprinting becomes one of the popular approaches in the tissue engineering. In this emerging application, bioink is crucial for fabrication and functionality of constructed tissue. The use of cell spheroids as bioink can enhance the cell-cell interaction and subsequently the growth and differentiation of cells in the 3D printed construct with the minimum amount of other biomaterials. However, the conventional methods of preparing the cell spheroids have several limitations, such as long culture time, low-throughput, and medium modification. In this study, the formation of cell spheroids by SSAW was evaluated both numerically and experimentally in order to overcome the aforementioned limitations. The effects of excitation frequencies on the cell accumulation time, diameter of the formed cell spheroids, and subsequently, the growth and viability of cell spheroids in the culture medium over time were studied. Using the high-frequency (23.8 MHz) excitation, cell accumulation time to the pressure nodes could be reduced in comparison to that of the low-frequency (10.4 MHz) excitation, but in a smaller spheroid size. SSAW excitation at both frequencies does not affect the cell viability up to 7 days, > 90% with no statistical difference compared with the control group. In summary, SSAW can effectively prepare the cell spheroids as bioink for the future 3D bioprinting and various biotechnology applications (e.g., pharmaceutical drug screening and tissue engineering).

Developments and Opportunities for 3D Bioprinted Organoids.

Organoids developed from pluripotent stem cells or adult stem cells are three-dimensional cell cultures possessing certain key characteristics of their organ counterparts, and they can mimic certain biological developmental processes of organs in vitro. Therefore, they have promising applications in drug screening, disease modeling, and regenerative repair of tissues and organs. However, the construction of organoids currently faces numerous challenges, such as breakthroughs in scale size, vascularization, better reproducibility, and precise architecture in time and space. Recently, the application of bioprinting has accelerated the process of organoid construction. In this review, we present current bioprinting techniques and the application of bioinks and summarize examples of successful organoid bioprinting. In the future, a multidisciplinary combination of developmental biology, disease pathology, cell biology, and materials science will aid in overcoming the obstacles pertaining to the bioprinting of organoids. The combination of bioprinting and organoids with a focus on structure and function can facilitate further development of real organs.

Evaluation of Printing Parameters on 3D Extrusion Printing of Pluronic Hydrogels and Machine Learning Guided Parameter Recommendation.

Bioprinting is an emerging technology for the construction of complex three-dimensional (3D) constructs used in various biomedical applications. One of the challenges in this field is the delicate manipulation of material properties and various disparate printing parameters to create structures with high fidelity. Understanding the effects of certain parameters and identifying optimal parameters for creating highly accurate structures are therefore a worthwhile subject to investigate. The objective of this study is to investigate high-impact print parameters on the printing printability and develop a preliminary machine learning model to optimize printing parameters. The results of this study will lead to an exploration of machine learning applications in bioprinting and to an improved understanding between 3D printing parameters and structural printability. Reported results include the effects of rheological property, nozzle gauge, nozzle temperature, path height, and ink composition on the printability of Pluronic F127. The developed Support Vector Machine model generated a process map to assist the selection of optimal printing parameters to yield high quality prints with high probability (>75%). Future work with more generalized machine learning models in bioprinting is also discussed in this article. The finding of this study provides a simple tool to improve printability of extrusion-based bioprinting with minimum experimentations.

Bioinks for 3D Bioprinting: A Scientometric Analysis of Two Decades of Progress.

This scientometric analysis of 393 original papers published from January 2000 to June 2019 describes the development and use of bioinks for 3D bioprinting. The main trends for bioink applications and the primary considerations guiding the selection and design of current bioink components (i.e., cell types, hydrogels, and additives) were reviewed. The cost, availability, practicality, and basic biological considerations (e.g., cytocompatibility and cell attachment) are the most popular parameters guiding bioink use and development. Today, extrusion bioprinting is the most widely used bioprinting technique. The most reported use of bioinks is the generic characterization of bioink formulations or bioprinting technologies (32%), followed by cartilage bioprinting applications (16%). Similarly, the cell-type choice is mostly generic, as cells are typically used as models to assess bioink formulations or new bioprinting methodologies rather than to fabricate specific tissues. The cell-binding motif arginine-glycine-aspartate is the most common bioink additive. Many articles reported the development of advanced functional bioinks for specific biomedical applications; however, most bioinks remain the basic compositions that meet the simple criteria: Manufacturability and essential biological performance. Alginate and gelatin methacryloyl are the most popular hydrogels that meet these criteria. Our analysis suggests that present-day bioinks still represent a stage of emergence of bioprinting technology.

Machine learning and 3D bioprinting.

48With the growing number of biomaterials and printing technologies, bioprinting has brought about tremendous potential to fabricate biomimetic architectures or living tissue constructs. To make bioprinting and bioprinted constructs more powerful, machine learning (ML) is introduced to optimize the relevant processes, applied materials, and mechanical/biological performances. The objectives of this work were to collate, analyze, categorize, and summarize published articles and papers pertaining to ML applications in bioprinting and their impact on bioprinted constructs, as well as the directions of potential development. From the available references, both traditional ML and deep learning (DL) have been applied to optimize the printing process, structural parameters, material properties, and biological/mechanical performance of bioprinted constructs. The former uses features extracted from image or numerical data as inputs in prediction model building, and the latter uses the image directly for segmentation or classification model building. All of these studies present advanced bioprinting with a stable and reliable printing process, desirable fiber/droplet diameter, and precise layer stacking, and also enhance the bioprinted constructs with better design and cell performance. The current challenges and outlooks in developing process-material-performance models are highlighted, which may pave the way for revolutionizing bioprinting technologies and bioprinted construct design.

Design of magnetic kappa-carrageenan-collagen bioinks for 3D bioprinting

Bioprinting approaches are of great promise for tissue engineering applications as they allow the fabrication of constructs able to mimic native tissues’ mechanical and topographical features. Additional control over cells fate can be enhanced using stimuli-responsive materials, requiring the development of novel bioinks for this purpose. In this study, bioinks comprising κ-carrageenan, collagen, and magnetic nanoparticles were designed for 3D bioprinting applications. The characterization of this material was performed, where mechanical compressive tests yielded Young’s moduli ranging from 8.25 to 18.4 kPa. Rheological assessments also revealed the shear-thinning behavior of the bioinks and a temperature-dependent gelation. The capability of these bioinks to produce 3D constructs by extrusion bioprinting was established through the printability evaluation and the development of complex structures, supporting the viability and proliferation of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs). Finally, as proof-of-concept, it was observed that the secretome of bioprinted MSCs stimulated with an external magnetic field of 80 mT was able to increase the number of tubes formed by human umbilical vein endothelial cells.

Multiscale Materials Engineering via Self-Assembly of Pentapeptide Derivatives from SARS CoV E Protein.

Short peptide-based supramolecular hydrogels hold enormous potential for a wide range of applications. However, the gelation of these systems is very challenging to control. Minor changes in the peptide sequence can significantly influence the self-assembly mechanism and thereby the gelation propensity. The involvement of SARS CoV E protein in the assembly and release of the virus suggests that it may have inherent self-assembling properties that can contribute to the development of hydrogels. Here, three pentapeptide sequences derived from C-terminal of SARS CoV E protein are explored with same amino acid residues but different sequence distributions and discovered a drastic difference in the gelation propensity. By combining spectroscopic and microscopic techniques, the relationship between peptide sequence arrangement and molecular assembly structure are demonstrated, and how these influence the mechanical properties of the hydrogel. The present study expands the variety of secondary structures for generating supramolecular hydrogels by introducing the 310-helix as the primary building block for gelation, facilitated by a water-mediated structural transition into β-sheet conformation. Moreover, these Fmoc-modified pentapeptide hydrogels/supramolecular assemblies with tunable morphology and mechanical properties are suitable for tissue engineering, injectable delivery, and 3D bio-printing applications.

Translational Aspects of 3D and 4D Printing and Bioprinting.

Three-dimensional (3D) printed medical devices include orthopedic and craniofacial implants, surgical tools, and external prosthetics that have been directly used in patients. While the advances of additive manufacturing techniques in the production of medical devices have been on the rise, clinical translation of living cellular constructs face significant limitations in terms of regulatory affairs, process technology, and materials development. In this perspective, the current status-quo of 3D and four-dimensional (4D) (bio)printing is summarized, current advancements are discussed and the challenges that need to be addressed for improved industrial translation and clinical applications of bioprinting are highlighted. It is focused on a multidisciplinary approach in discussing the key translational considerations, from the perspective of industry, regulatory bodies, funding strategies, and future directions.