Appearance-related Comparisons Research Articles

The Relationship Between Body Image Dissatisfaction, Psychopathological Symptoms, Social Comparisons With Peers and Celebrities, and Self-Compassion in Men.

This study aimed to further understand body image among men by examining differences in body dissatisfaction and physical appearance-related comparisons with peers and celebrities, self-compassion, depressive and anxiety symptoms, and explore the relationship between male body image dissatisfaction, self-compassion, and depressive symptoms. The sample comprised 220 Portuguese men aged 18-66 years old, mostly single (78.2%) and with a mean Body Mass Index (BMI) of 24.81. Participants completed online measures assessing depressive and anxiety symptoms, male body dissatisfaction, self-compassion, and social comparison disseminated through social media and online forums. No significant differences were found between the BMI groups regarding anxiety, depression, and self-compassion. Underweight and typical weight groups revealed significantly less male body dissatisfaction (body fat dimension). Participants in the obesity group revealed less positive social comparisons with peers and celebrities. Regression results showed that age, years of education, the muscularity dimension of the male body dissatisfaction, and self-compassion were significant predictors, accounting for 26% of depressive symptoms. Cultivating self-compassionate skills may be helpful for dealing with muscularity dissatisfaction, thus leading to less depressive symptoms.

The nature and functions of appearance-related comparisons in body dysmorphic disorder.

Appearance-related comparisons (A-RCs) in body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) are under researched despite their probable role in disorder maintenance. The present study therefore aimed to explore the nature (frequency, direction and automaticity), and functions of A-RCs in BDD. N = 43 including people with BDD (n = 23) and controls (n = 20) matched approximately on age and sex were recruited. A mixture of standardized and devised questionnaires on body image and A-RCs were completed. A-RCs were significantly more frequent, generally more upward (to more attractive standards of comparison), and more automatic in people with BDD relative to the control group. People with BDD also held significantly stronger agreement with beliefs about A-RCs as serving functions of: self-evaluation, self-improvement, self-enhancement, and in particular, self-loathing (a way to confirm beliefs about physical unattractiveness) and social threat management. This research presents evidence that the nature and functions of A-RCs in BDD have a role in this disorder's maintenance. Clinical implications, limitations, and future directions for research are discussed.

The Role of Aversive Appearance-Related Comparisons and Self-Discrepancy in Depression and Well-Being From a Longitudinal General Comparative-Processing Perspective

Research indicates that aversive appearance-related comparisons (i.e., perceived as threatening one’s own motives) are associated with depressive symptoms. However, central elements underlying the comparison process are poorly understood. Drawing on central propositions of comparison theory, we hypothesized that an increased aversive comparison frequency instigates high levels of perceived comparison discrepancy to the standard, resulting in an intensified negative affective impact. Consequently, this heightened affective impact is expected to elicit more depressive symptoms and lower psychological well-being. We additionally expected that these pathways are moderated by dispositional self-discrepancies. In a two-wave longitudinal study, participants with elevated depressive symptoms (N = 500) responded to measures of self-discrepancy, depressive symptoms, psychological well-being, and the Comparison Standards Scale for Appearance. The latter assesses aversive social, temporal, counterfactual, and criteria-based comparisons regarding their frequency, perceived discrepancy to the standard, and engendered affective impact. The affective impact after engaging in aversive appearance-related comparisons (partially) accounted for the relation between comparison discrepancy and subsequent depressive symptoms and psychological well-being. Perceived discrepancy to the aversive comparison standards was not a key variable in this process. Dispositional self-discrepancy emerged as moderator on different pathways. Clinical implications are discussed in light of central theoretical accounts from a general comparative-processing perspective.

The Relationship of Aversive and Appetitive Appearance-Related Comparisons with Depression, Well-Being, and Self-esteem: A Response Surface Analysis

PurposeAversive appearance-related comparisons (i.e., threatening one’s own motives) show stronger associations with depression, psychological well-being, and self-esteem than appetitive comparisons (i.e., consonant with or challenging one’s motives). However, the relevance of their congruent (i.e., equal) and incongruent (i.e., unequal) presence remains unknown. MethodsBy using response surface analysis, we investigated differential associations of congruent high levels of aversive and appetitive comparisons with depression, well-being, and self-esteem relative to incongruent high levels of aversive (or appetitive) comparisons. Participants (N = 1112) responded to measures of depression, psychological well-being, self-esteem, and the Comparison Standards Scale for Appearance. The latter assesses aversive and appetitive social, temporal, counterfactual, criteria-based, and dimensional comparisons regarding their frequency, discrepancy to the standard, and affective impact. ResultsResults confirmed our preregistered hypotheses. First, higher levels of congruent frequency, discrepancy, or affective impact were associated with higher depression, and lower well-being and self-esteem. Second, a greater predominance of aversive over appetitive comparisons was associated with higher depression, and lower well-being and self-esteem. Third, a predominance of appetitive over aversive comparison was associated with lower depression, and higher well-being and self-esteem.ConclusionsThe distinct patterns of the (in-)congruence of aversive and appetitive comparisons have important research and clinical implications.

Gender Differences in Links between Daily Use of Instagram and Body Dissatisfaction in a Sample of Young Adults in Lithuania

In the last decade, the fast growth of Instagram and its tendency to replace traditional media as a source of glamour images stimulated research into the effects of Instagram on body image of its users. The purpose of the present research was to investigate gender differences in Instagram use and its links to body dissatisfaction in a sample of young adult daily users of Instagram in Lithuania. The sample included 346 participants (100 male and 246 female) aged 18 to 34 years. Along with age and body mass index, measures included self-reported daily Instagram checking frequency, daily duration of Instagram use, Instagram engagement, and appearance-related comparisons which all were used to predict body dissatisfaction. Results revealed that among young adult daily users of Instagram in Lithuania women spent more time on Instagram, were more engaged with Instagram and were more prone to appearance-related comparisons on Instagram than men, but did not differ from men in Instagram checking frequency. For both men and women, higher body dissatisfaction was predicted by more frequent appearance-related comparisons on Instagram and higher body mass index. Higher daily Instagram checking frequency made a small, but statistically significant contribution towards predicting higher body dissatisfaction for women, but not for men.

Measuring Appearance-Related Comparisons: Validation of the Comparison Standards Scale for Appearance

BackgroundHumans constantly compare their attributes to different reference frames. According to the theoretical framework of the general comparative-processing model, such comparisons may be perceived as aversive (i.e., appraised as threatening the motives of the comparer) or appetitive (i.e., appraised as consonant with, or positively challenging the motives). However, we lack a measure that adequately captures multi-standard comparisons.MethodsConsidering appearance-related comparisons as a relevant comparison domain, we introduce the Comparison Standards Scale for Appearance (CSS-A) that assesses appearance-related social, temporal, counterfactual, criteria-based, and dimensional upward and downward comparisons regarding their (a) frequency, (b) perceived discrepancy, and (c) engendered affect. We administered the CSS-A to 1121 participants, along with measures of appearance social comparison, body satisfaction, physical self-concept, self-esteem, well-being, and depression.ResultsA two-factor model (aversive and appetitive comparisons) fit the data better than a bifactor model with an additional general domain-factor (comparative thinking). The validity of the CSS-A was supported by correlations with external validators beyond appearance, social comparison, and body satisfaction. Aversive comparisons displayed higher associations with most outcomes than appetitive comparisons.ConclusionsOverall, the CSS-A offers a psychometrically sound and useful measure of multi-standard comparisons.

The dark side of Instagram: Predictor model of dysmorphic concerns

Background/ObjectiveDysmorphic concern are excessive preoccupation about one or several physical characteristics perceived as defects, usually unnoticeable by others. This study was intended to explore the relationship between Instagram use and dysmorphic concerns through appearance-related comparisons, ideas of reference and problems with emotion regulation, and find out whether this relationship is moderated by gender. Method: The sample was comprised of 796 participants (Mage = 22.49; SD = 3.56; 54% women). Results: The results showed a non-significant direct effect between Instagram use and dysmorphic concerns. However, the relationship between these variables was statistically significant through appearance-related comparisons, ideas of reference about “laughing, commenting” and difficulties in emotion regulation. Gender did not moderate any relationship. Conclusions: Men and women who made the most use of Instagram were equally vulnerable to dysmorphic concerns when they tended to compare their appearance with other users, had problems regulating their emotions, and showed interpretative biases related to the belief that others could make comments about them or laugh at them because of their imperfections. The implications of the study are discussed.

Towards a sociocultural model of weight stigma.

Weight stigma is pervasive and is associated with numerous physical and psychological health consequences, including decreased body satisfaction. Understanding of contributing factors to weight stigma remains limited, although researchers have consistently documented the connection between weight controllability beliefs and weight stigma. Sociocultural factors, including thin-ideal internalization and related social-cognitive correlates, are in the nascent stages of exploration to further our understanding of weight stigma. In this study, we tested an emerging sociocultural model of weight stigma, examining the influence of thin-ideal internalization and appearance-related comparisons on weight stigma, statistically controlling for weight controllability beliefs and accounting for thin-ideal environmental influences. Participants were 137MTurk workers living in the United States. We found that increased thin-ideal information was associated with thin-ideal internalization, which in turn was related to both upward and downward appearance-related comparison tendencies. These comparisons were then significantly related to weight stigma, controlling for weight controllability beliefs. There were significant indirect effects of both upward and downward appearance-related comparison tendencies on the relation between thin-ideal internalization and weight stigma. These results extend limited prior research examining the association between the thin-ideal and appearance-related comparisons with weight stigma, and contribute to a more nuanced understanding of this complex phenomenon. Level V, cross-sectional study.

Sexually Objectifying Selfies: Gender Impression Management, Body Image Concern, and Appearance-related Social Comparisons

Sexually Objectifying Selfies: Gender Impression Management, Body Image Concern, and Appearance-related Social Comparisons

The role of appearance schematicity in the internalization of media appearance ideals: A panel study of preadolescents

Individuals who are more strongly invested in their appearance, appearance schematics, have a tendency to engage in appearance-related comparison. Appearance schematicity consists of two components. The self-evaluative component concerns the degree to which appearance is central to self-worth, referred to as dysfunctional appearance beliefs. Motivational salience refers to the engagement in behaviors designed to enhance appearance, such as body surveillance. Based on a three-wave panel survey of 973 Flemish preadolescents (Mage = 11.15, SD = 1.13) we found that the motivational and self-evaluative components had a different impact on media internalization. For preadolescents who engaged in more body surveillance, watching television resulted in more media internalization. For preadolescents who had fewer dysfunctional appearance beliefs, watching television resulted in more media internalization. These findings suggest that appearance schematicity is an important susceptibility variable in the relationship between TV-exposure and media internalization, and emphasize the importance of investigating individual dispositions beyond gender differences.

Instagram and college women's body image: Investigating the roles of appearance-related comparisons and intrasexual competition

Similar to effects identified with traditional media forms, recent evidence indicates that body image concerns, such as body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness, may also be associated with exposure to images on Social Networking Sites. Utilizing social comparison theory, the current study sought to examine the relationship between female university students' photo-based activities on Instagram, which is a relatively new Social Networking Site, appearance-related comparisons, and two outcome variables: drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction. Mediational analyses using bootstrapping methods indicated that Instagram photo-based activities positively predicted both drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction through the mediating variable of appearance-related comparisons. These results suggest that Instagram use could be potentially harmful to individuals who find themselves frequently engaging in comparisons with others. Additionally, utilizing the intrasexual competition framework, the second aim of this study was to determine whether individual differences in competitiveness for mates influenced individual tendencies to engage in appearance-related comparisons on Instagram. A significant positive relationship emerged between intrasexual competitiveness for mates and appearance-related comparisons on Instagram. Theoretical and applied implications from these findings are discussed.

Maternal and Paternal Influences on Young Swedish Women’s and Men’s Cosmetic Surgery Acceptance

Cosmetic surgery has become increasingly popular during recent years. In this study, we hypothesized that stronger parental pressure concerning appearance would be related to more cosmetic surgery acceptance in both women and men. We further expected that the link between parental attitudes toward appearance and acceptance of cosmetic surgery would be mediated by body ideal internalization and appearance-related social comparison. Participants included 277 male and female undergraduates in West Sweden (38 % men, mean age = 22.42, SD ± 2.81). Results indicated that the hypothesized relationships were generally supported for men: Multiple mediational analyses showed that both paternal and maternal pressure regarding appearance predicted men’s greater acceptance cosmetic surgery, via mediation of appearance-related social comparison. For women, hypothesized relationships were less supported: Mediational analyses confirmed only a marginal effect between paternal appearance pressure and women’s endorsement of social motives for cosmetic surgery, via appearance-related social comparison. Women were, however, more likely than men to consider cosmetic surgery. Thus, the findings point toward a role of parents, through the processes of appearance-related comparison, for young men’s cosmetic surgery acceptance. For young adult women, other sociocultural agents (e.g., media, peers) may be more important for the acceptance of cosmetic surgery.

Children's body image and social comparisons with peers and the media.

Social comparisons are related to the development of body dissatisfaction among adolescents and adults, yet this relationship remains relatively unexamined among children. This study examines children's peer and media-related social comparisons, and how this impacts on their body image. Children aged 8-10 years completed interviews (17 girls and 19 boys in individual interviews, and 16 girls and 16 boys in focus groups). Analyses revealed that appearance-related comparisons were more common among girls, whereas sports/ability-related comparisons were more common for boys. In addition, boys viewed media comparisons as inspiring, whereas girls reported negative emotions. Implications for future research and prevention programmes are discussed.

Does This Friend Make Me Look Fat? Appearance-Related Comparisons Within Women's Close Friendships

The present research investigated the effects of close friends on women's body image and the moderating role of comfort with intimacy. Female participants wrote about a thin or heavy close friend prior to completing implicit (Study 1) and explicit (Study 2) body image measures. Results revealed that participants who avoided intimacy experienced contrast effects, feeling worse about their bodies following exposure to thin friends. However, these effects were attenuated, and sometimes reversed, among participants comfortable with intimacy. Thus, close friends—and the comfort with intimacy within those friendships—have important implications for women's body image.

Social comparison orientation as related to two types of closeness

Two studies examined the relationship between social comparison orientation (SCO) and two types of closeness (dimensional closeness and psychological closeness) in the context of appearance-related comparisons among women. A pilot study showed that these two types were relatively independent constructs, and provided evidence for the differential validity of the constructs. Consistent with our expectations, women high in SCO perceived more dimensional closeness with other women in terms of appearance (Study 1, n=94) and perceived more psychological closeness with other women (Study 2; n=126) than women low in SCO. Overall, women, but especially women high in SCO, reported most dimensional closeness in response to the most attractive women and most psychological closeness in response to women of medium levels of attractiveness.

Body image and explicit and implicit anti-fat attitudes: The mediating role of physical appearance comparisons

Prejudice against overweight people is rife. However, there is a paucity of research on the underlying reasons for it. In two studies the relationship between body image, the tendency to make physical appearance-related comparisons (PACS), and both explicit and implicit anti-fat attitudes was examined. In Study 1 ( n = 227) people with a high tendency to make physical appearance-related comparisons (high PACS scorers) reported lower self-appearance evaluation, but higher appearance orientation and explicit anti-fat attitudes. The PACS fully mediated the relationship between appearance orientation and explicit anti-fat attitudes. Study 2 ( n = 134) found that the PACS also mediated the relationship between appearance orientation and implicit anti-fat attitudes. Thus, individual differences in factors such as body image and the tendency to make appearance-related comparisons, appear to play a central role in both explicit and implicit anti-fat attitudes.

Determinants of body-image shame

While research has established a critical relationship between body-image shame and eating disorder symptomatology, no studies have examined factors contributing to body-image shame. As such, the present study assessed the contributions of internalisation of the thin ideal, appearance-related teasing, physical appearance-related comparisons, global self-worth, body-image esteem, teasing history and parental care and parental overprotection. Participants were 146 female undergraduate students aged between 18 and 25. Internalisation of the thin ideal was found to indirectly predict increases in body-image shame through appearance comparisons, while negative body-image esteem indirectly predicted increased body-image shame via global self-worth. Contrary to expectations, parental bonding practices and a history of weight-related teasing do not predict vulnerability to body-image shame, directly or indirectly. Collectively, body-image esteem, global self-worth, appearance comparison and internalisation of the thin ideal account for 62% of the variance in body-image shame.

Appearance-related social comparisons: the role of contingent self-esteem and self-perceptions of attractiveness.

Two studies examined contingent self-esteem (CSE) and responses to appearance-related social comparisons. Study 1 was an experimental study in which women rated a series of advertisements from popular women's magazines. Study 2 employed an event-contingent diary recording procedure. In Study 1, women who were higher in CSE and lower in self-perceptions of attractiveness (SPA) experienced greater decreases in positive affect and greater increases in negative affect following the ad-rating task. Study 2 results supported a mediation model in which women who were higher in CSE felt worse after social comparisons because they made primarily upward comparisons. Overall, results suggest that appearance-related comparisons are more distressing for those who base their self-worth on contingencies and have lower self-perceived attractiveness.

An investigation of the cognitive organization of body comparison sites in relation to physical appearance related anxiety and drive for thinness

Modeling cognitive processes that link variables associated with maladaptive behavior has led to successful interventions, particularly for alcohol use. In the present study, Individual Differences Scaling (INDSCAL) was used to model the cognitive structure of appearance-related comparisons in relation to physical appearance related anxiety and drive for thinness (DT) among 635 college students. Results were consistent with previous work in finding two primary comparison dimensions. A weight/nonweight dimension was primarily emphasized by females and a muscle/nonmuscle dimension was primarily emphasized by males. These gender differences continued to be evident when females and males were matched on levels of appearance-related anxiety and DT. Gender-specific analyses indicated that females with higher levels of appearance-related anxiety and DT primarily emphasized the weight dimension while females with lower levels of these characteristics tended to emphasize a physical attractiveness dimension. Males with higher levels of appearance-related anxiety and DT also primarily emphasized the weight dimension while males with lower levels of these characteristics tended to emphasize a muscle-related dimension. Findings are discussed in terms of risk factors for disturbance, and as a means of improving assessment, treatment, and prevention strategies.