Appearance Ideals Research Articles

Body Satisfaction and Eating Attitudes among Girls and Young Women with and without Polycystic Ovary Syndrome

PurposeThe main goal of the current study was to examine the associations between polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and body dissatisfaction and eating attitudes in a sample of adolescent girls and young women. Body dissatisfaction is 1 of the strongest predictors of the development of negative outcomes such as low self-esteem, and eating disorders. In adolescent age group of patients, both hirsutism and increased body mass index, appearing with PCOS, may be the leading symptoms also resulting or contributing to body dissatisfaction and eating disorder. Materials and MethodsThe sample of 94 Turkish adolescent girls and young women [PCOS (n = 42) vs non-PCOS (n = 52)] completed measures of figure rating scale, the socio-cultural attitudes toward appearance questionnaire, body esteem scale, eating attitude test, and demographics. Results and ConclusionThe results revealed that body esteem was important for predicting eating attitudes in both groups and sociocultural internalization of thinness ideal and body dissatisfaction were also significant factors in PCOS group. However, scores for major study variables (BMI, sociocultural attitudes toward awareness and internalized appearance ideals, body esteem subscales, body dissatisfaction and eating attitudes) in the PCOS group were not significantly higher than those for girls without PCOS.

Can appearance conversations explain differences between gay and heterosexual men’s body dissatisfaction?

Men's body dissatisfaction is prevalent and a serious health concern as it is associated with negative outcomes including depression, disordered eating, and anabolic steroid abuse. Gay men are particularly vulnerable to body dissatisfaction, perhaps due to heightened sociocultural appearance pressures experienced in gay subculture. Appearance conversations represent an underresearched, but potentially potent, mechanism of appearance pressures. The current study explored whether differences in the frequency of engaging in appearance conversations accounted for differences in body dissatisfaction and associated risk factors among gay and heterosexual men. A purposeful sample of gay (N = 77, Mage = 32.57) and heterosexual (N = 78, Mage = 25.30) men were recruited from community organizations in the United Kingdom. Participants completed an online questionnaire assessing appearance conversations, body dissatisfaction, appearance orientation, and internalization of appearance ideals. Gay men reported more frequent engagement in positive and negative appearance conversations and greater body dissatisfaction, appearance orientation, and general internalization than heterosexual men. Moreover, frequency of appearance conversations mediated the relationship between sexuality and the majority of study variables, including body dissatisfaction (ps<.05). These findings suggest that appearance conversations are an important sociocultural influence on male body image and that they are important in understanding the differences between gay and heterosexual men's body dissatisfaction and associated risk factors. © 2013 American Psychological Association.

The three-step process of self-objectification: Potential implications for adolescents’ body consciousness during sexual activity

A three-wave panel study with intervals of six months was conducted to examine the relationships between internalization of appearance ideals, body surveillance, valuing appearance over competence, and body consciousness during sexual activity among 238 Belgian adolescents who had engaged in sexual intercourse. Consistent with predictions, structural equation modeling indicated that greater internalization of appearance ideals at Wave 1 contributed to increased body surveillance and valuing appearance over competence at Wave 2. Body surveillance at Wave 2 and internalization at Wave 1 predicted higher body consciousness during sexual activity at Wave 3. Gender did not moderate these results, as model paths were similar in strength for girls and boys. These results further implicate the consequences of internalizing sociocultural practices that objectify boys and girls regarding adolescents’ initial sexual experiences.

The Role of Friends and Peers in Adolescent Body Dissatisfaction: A Review and Critique of 15 Years of Research

We review the research conducted in the past 15 years concerned with the role of friends and peers in adolescent body dissatisfaction. A number of friend and peer group characteristics have been associated with heightened body dissatisfaction both concurrently and longitudinally. Most widely studied and more consistently linked to body dissatisfaction are appearance teasing and perceived pressure from friends to be thin. Other interactions between friends and peers that communicate and strengthen appearance ideals and direct attention to appearance also have been associated with body dissatisfaction, including appearance‐related conversations, friends' modeling of dieting behavior, and perceptions of friends' appearance‐related attitudes. Finally, the research is critiqued, new directions considered, and strategies are proposed that could be implemented to reduce body dissatisfaction.

Happy Being Me in the UK: A controlled evaluation of a school-based body image intervention with pre-adolescent children

This study evaluated an adapted version of ‘Happy Being Me’, a school-based body image intervention, with girls and boys aged 10–11 years. Forty-three children participated in a three-week intervention, and 45 children formed a control group. Both groups completed measures of body satisfaction, risk factors for negative body image, eating behaviors, self-esteem, and intervention topic knowledge, at baseline, post-intervention, and 3-month follow-up. For girls, participation in the intervention resulted in significant improvements in body satisfaction, appearance-related conversations, appearance comparisons, eating behaviors and intervention topic knowledge at post-intervention, although only the change in body satisfaction was maintained. There was also a significant decrease in internalization of cultural appearance ideals from baseline to follow-up. For boys, participation in the intervention resulted in significant improvements in internalization and appearance comparisons at post-intervention; however, neither of these changes were sustained at follow-up. There were no improvements in the control group over time.

Sexualization of Adolescent Boys

This study ( N = 911) investigated how exposure to sexualizing prime-time television programs, music television, men’s magazines, and pornographic websites was related to the internalization of appearance ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance among adolescent boys. A structural equation model showed direct relationships between exposure to sexualizing television and pornographic websites and the internalization of appearance ideals. Indirect relationships between these types of sexualizing media, and self-objectification and body surveillance through the internalization of appearance ideals were also reported. A direct relationship with self-objectification was only found for sexualizing pornographic websites. Discussion warns attention for adolescent boys at risk of sexualization.

A Spanish Version of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire‐3 (SATAQ‐3): Translation and Psychometric Evaluation

The goal of this study was to translate the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-3 (SATAQ-3; Thompson, van den Berg, Roehrig, Guarda, & Heinberg, 2004) into Spanish and psychometrically evaluate the comparability of the Spanish translation to the original English version. 638 female college students from Spain and the United States completed the SATAQ-3 in Spanish and English, respectively. Internal consistency was high in both languages. Tests of factor equivalence suggested that the four pre-established factors of the SATAQ-3 (i.e., knowledge, perceived pressure, thin-ideal internalization, athletic-ideal internalization) were relatively similar between the two groups. Differences that emerged between groups (on items 6 and 20) were in the expected direction and appeared to be influenced by reverse-scoring or item wording. Results support the psychometric properties of this Spanish translation of the SATAQ-3 and support its use to measure endorsement of Western values and ideals of appearance in adult women.

Healthy appearances – distorted body images? Young adults negotiating body motives

Drawing on focus group discussions, this article explores how young, Finnish university students view the cultural ideals of health and appearance. The young adults noted how body practices aiming at health can turn into unhealthy obsessions. As a result, a healthy-looking body may serve to cover an underlying body image distortion. Health and well-being were defined as appropriate motives for engaging in body projects, while appearance as a motive was questioned. I argue that the current promotion of health may cause individuals to experience pressure to outwardly appear healthy at the cost of neglecting the subjective experience of well-being, and that this may especially influence young women.

The Intuitive Eating Scale–2: Item refinement and psychometric evaluation with college women and men.

The 21-item Intuitive Eating Scale (IES; Tylka, 2006) measures individuals' tendency to follow their physical hunger and satiety cues when determining when, what, and how much to eat. While its scores have demonstrated reliability and validity with college women, the IES-2 was developed to improve upon the original version. Specifically, we added 17 positively scored items to the original IES items (which were predominantly negatively scored), integrated an additional component of intuitive eating (Body-Food Choice Congruence), and evaluated its psychometric properties with 1,405 women and 1,195 men across three studies. After we deleted 15 items (due to low item-factor loadings, high cross-loadings, and redundant content), the results supported the psychometric properties of the IES-2 with women and men. The final 23-item IES-2 contained 11 original items and 12 added items. Exploratory and second-order confirmatory factor analyses upheld its hypothesized 4-factor structure (its original 3 factors, plus Body-Food Choice Congruence) and a higher order factor. The IES-2 was largely invariant across sex, although negligible differences on 1 factor loading and 2 item intercepts were detected. Demonstrating validity, the IES-2 total scores and most IES-2 subscale scores were (a) positively related to body appreciation, self-esteem, and satisfaction with life; (b) inversely related to eating disorder symptomatology, poor interoceptive awareness, body surveillance, body shame, body mass index, and internalization of media appearance ideals; and (c) negligibly related to social desirability. IES-2 scores also garnered incremental validity by predicting psychological well-being above and beyond eating disorder symptomatology. The IES-2's applications for empirical research and clinical work are discussed.

Risk factors in the development of anorexia nervosa

Anorexia nervosa is a complex eating disorder characterized by the voluntary reduction, and subsequent maintenance, of body weight at a level below 85% of optimal body weight, a pathological fear of food and weight gain, and disturbance of experience of weight and body shape. Development, sustainability and complexity of symptoms depend upon different biological, psychological and social factors. The aim of the paper is to present risk factors that can significantly contribute to the development and severity of the symptoms of anorexia nervosa. This review paper presents the key factors in the development of the disorder. Attachment styles, perfectionism and concerns about body shape, as core psychological factors for development and severity of symptoms, are the principle areas discussed. Lack of self-esteem and self-confidence, unresolved emotional issues, high, unrealistic standards and ideals of physical appearance to which people rigidly hold and which they persistently and consistently attempt to reach, dissatisfaction with body shape, and significant discrepancy between perceived and ideal body image are all associated with maladaptive behavior and attitudes towards food, and often precede the diagnosis of the disorder. The review of research indicates that insecure emotional attachment styles, perfectionism and concern about body shape significantly correlate with symptoms of anorexia nervosa and represent risk and maintaining factors of the disorder. Focus on these problems can significantly contribute to more comprehensive prevention and treatment of the disorder.

Body Composition and Military Performance—Many Things to Many People

Soldiers are expected to maintain the highest possible level of physical readiness because they must be ready to mobilize and perform their duties anywhere in the world at any time. The objective of Army body composition standards is to motivate physical training and good nutrition habits to ensure a high state of readiness. Establishment of enforceable and rational standards to support this objective has been challenging even at extremes of body size. Morbidly obese individuals are clearly not suited to military service, but very large muscular individuals may be superbly qualified for soldier performance demands. For this reason, large individuals are measured for body fat using a waist circumference-based equation (female soldiers are also measured for hip circumference). The main challenge comes in setting appropriate fat standards to support the full range of Army requirements. Military appearance ideals dictate the most stringent body fat standards, whereas health risk thresholds anchor the most liberal standards, and physical performance associations fall on a spectrum between these 2 poles. Standards should not exclude or penalize specialized performance capabilities such as endurance running or power lifting across a spectrum of body sizes and fat. The full integration of women into the military further complicates the issue because of sexually dimorphic characteristics that make gender-appropriate standards essential and where inappropriately stringent standards can compromise both health and performance of this segment of the force. Other associations with body composition such as stress effects on intraabdominal fat distribution patterns and metabolic implications of a fat reserve for survival in extreme environments are also relevant considerations. This is a review of the science that underpins the U.S. Army body composition standards.

“I bet they aren’t that perfect in reality:” Appearance ideals viewed from the perspective of adolescents with a positive body image

In this qualitative study, we examined the topic of appearance ideals from the perspective of 14-year-old adolescents (N=29) with a positive body image. A thematic analysis revealed that the adolescents with a positive body image were very critical against current ideals, describing them as unnatural and unrealistic, and criticizing media for only showing those consistent with the ideals and having underlying intentions with doing so. Instead, the adolescents defined beauty widely and flexibly, stressed the importance of looking like ‘oneself’, and conveyed the idea of personality as outplaying looks. The perception of beauty as subjective was also prominent. These results may be helpful when forming preventions targeting those at risk for developing negative body image, adding support for preventions based on media literacy and feminist theories. Additionally, we stress the significance of providing adolescents with alternative ways of thinking about ideals, beauty, and attractiveness.

How Not to Act like a Woman: Gender Ideology and Humor in West Java, Indonesia

In West Java, Indonesia, hosts of hajat (life-cycle event celebrations) hire performing arts troupes to provide entertainment. In addition to typical music and dance acts, one troupe—the Rawit Group—presents a comedy skit called lawakan . This article analyzes one such skit from 1999—just after the fall of President Soeharto's New Order government. The centerpiece of the skit is a parody of two performing traditions that feature professional female entertainers: pop Sunda (diatonic pop songs in Sundanese language) and wayang golek (rod puppet theatre with accompaniment that includes virtuosic female singing). In both traditions, female performers routinely exaggerate their feminine attributes. This female entertainer, however, is portrayed by a man in comically unconvincing drag. Hilarity ensues as the other comedians urge the drag performer to conform to New Order feminine ideals of appearance and behavior, but s/he confounds them at every turn. In the process, the three men reinforce traditional Sundanese understandings of how the illusion of femininity is actively created through visual means (e.g., artifices of dress) and sonic elements (e.g., singing and speaking styles), and conventions of movement. In the process, they challenge New Order gender policies and point the way toward a return to tried and true Sundanese ideologies of gender.

Beauty, Ethnicity, and Age: Does Internalization of Mainstream Media Ideals Influence Attitudes Towards Older Adults?

Mainstream North American media promotes the message that attaining a thin, youthful appearance is central to a woman’s value and social role while appearing older is highly undesirable. However, appearance ideals and attitudes toward aging differ substantially across cultural and ethnic groups, which may influence the degree to which one internalizes media ideals and holds anti-aging attitudes. Consequently, this study examined the relationships between internalization of the youthful, thin-ideal appearance perpetuated by mainstream North American media and attitudes toward the elderly in a sample of 281 undergraduate females under the age of 30 attending a university in the Western United States. Specifically, European American (n = 115), Asian American/Pacific Islander (n = 74), Hispanic/Latina (n = 52), and African American (n = 42) women voluntarily completed self-report measures of internalization of media ideals and attitudes towards older adults. Attitudes towards the elderly were significantly more negative at higher levels of internalization of North American appearance ideals, independent of ethnicity. These data suggest that internalization of North American appearance ideals perpetuated by media are related to negative attitudes towards older adults. Future research should investigate the influence of negative attitudes about aging on behaviors toward older adults or one’s own aging process.

Advertising Images of Men: Body Size and Muscularity of Men Depicted in Men’s Health Magazine

Abstract Despite an increasing incidence of body image and eating disturbances in men, research on men and the ways in which they are affected by the media remain greatly under-documented. Given the fact that men are not immune to media images and are increasingly objectified in the media (Rohlinger, 2002), some men may be under as much pressure as women to achieve cultural ideals of physical appearance depicted by the media. The media not only reflects cultural environments but it can also actively shape social norms as being recognized as an important socialization agent. In Western cultures, the male appearance ideal is leanness with defined musculature. Emphasis on muscularity for male body ideals has also been noted with children’s action toys (Baghurst, Carlston, Wood, & Wyatt, 2007). Although men are not targeted as obviously as fitness magazines target bodybuilders, men are increasingly targeted by advertisements in health and lifestyle magazines concerning how to improve their shape, tone their m...

'I think a fair girl would have better marriage prospects than a dark one': British Indian adults’ perceptions of physical appearance ideals

The aim of the present study was to investigate British Indian men and women’s perceptions of Indian physical appearance ideals and related attributes. Eight semi-structured interviews with men and women were conducted, and the data were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Four themes emerged from the data: 1) Cultural similarities and differences in physical appearance, 2) Gender differences in pressure experienced, 3) Improving physical appearance for marriage, and 4) Factors influencing appearance pressures. The findings indicated that participants perceived few cultural similarities in the Indian and Western standards for physical appearance. Internalisation of Indian body ideals (including fair skin and slimness) were linked to finding a suitable partner for marriage for women, and this pressure was largely perceived to be influenced by maternal encouragement and the media. The results indicate that gender is influential in determining the physical, psychological and social implications of attempting to conform to the cultural physical appearance ideals and related attributes.

Erratum to: Internalization of Appearance Ideals and Cosmetic Surgery Attitudes: A Test of the Tripartite Influence Model of Body Image

Erratum to: Internalization of Appearance Ideals and Cosmetic Surgery Attitudes: A Test of the Tripartite Influence Model of Body Image

Women’s body image and the role of culture: A review of the literature

Body image can be described as a combination of a person’s perceptions, feelings and thoughts about his/her body and their general physical appearance. Self-perceptions are important to examine because they can have implications for a person’s psychological and physical health. Past research has shown that culture plays a significant role in forming appearance ideals and that these vary for women of different cultures. The purpose of this article was to review the present literature on the prevalence of negative body image in women of different ethnic groups living in Western cultures. The similarities and differences between cultures in terms of negative body image in women were discussed followed by an examination of the role of acculturation in the development of negative body image. The findings showed that a significant proportion of women of different ethnicities are dissatisfied with their bodies and many are dieting to lose weight. The similarities between the groups indicated that the effect of non-Western cultures that previously promoted larger, more realistic body ideals is now diminishing. Thinner body ideals are now being reinforced for all women regardless of culture and ethnicity, thereby increasing the vulnerability towards developing a negative body image. The role of individual differences and the implications of this change are also discussed in this article.

Internalization of Appearance Ideals and Cosmetic Surgery Attitudes: A Test of the Tripartite Influence Model of Body Image

The Tripartite Influence Model of Body Image was adapted to examine the role of body satisfaction, perceived pressure to have cosmetic surgery, and internalization of societal appearance ideals in understanding cosmetic surgery attitudes. Participants were 2,048 men (N = 445) and women (N = 1,603) American college students from Florida who completed a range of measures that assessed levels of body satisfaction, perceived appearance pressures, internalization of appearance standards, and cosmetic surgery attitudes. A structural equation model was used to test hypothesized relations independently for men and women. Results indicated a moderate-good fit to the data, with both internalization and body satisfaction mediating the effect of perceived pressures on cosmetic surgery attitudes. Invariance testing revealed significant differences in pathway estimates between samples of men and women. The findings offer further support for the Tripartite Influence Model of Body Image and indicate potential factors that may influence cosmetic surgery attitudes.

Evulvalution: The Portrayal of Women's External Genitalia and Physique across Time and the Current Barbie Doll Ideals

Media images of the female body commonly represent reigning appearance ideals of the era in which they are published. To date, limited documentation of the genital appearance ideals in mainstream media exists. Analysis 1 sought to describe genital appearance ideals (i.e., mons pubis and labia majora visibility, labia minora size and color, and pubic hair style) and general physique ideals (i.e., hip, waist, and bust size, height, weight, and body mass index [BMI]) across time based on 647 Playboy Magazine centerfolds published between 1953 and 2007. Analysis 2 focused exclusively on the genital appearance ideals embodied by models in 185 Playboy photographs published between 2007 and 2008. Taken together, results suggest the perpetuation of a “Barbie Doll” ideal characterized by a low BMI, narrow hips, a prominent bust, and hairless, undefined genitalia resembling those of a prepubescent female.