Apical Plasma Membrane Domains Research Articles

Immunoprecipitation and Western Blot Analysis of AP-1 Clathrin-Coated Vesicles.

The function and integrity of epithelial cells depends on the polarized localization of transmembrane proteins at either apical or basolateral plasma membrane domains. To facilitate sorting to the basolateral domain, columnar epithelial cells express the tissue-specific AP-1B complex in addition to the ubiquitously expressed AP-1A. Both AP-1A and AP-1B are heterotetrameric clathrin adaptor protein complexes that are closely related. Here we describe a biochemical method to separate AP-1B from AP-1A clathrin-coated vesicles by immunoprecipitation from clathrin-coated vesicle pellets that were obtained by ultracentrifugation and analyzed by SDS-PAGE and western blot using fluorescently labeled secondary antibodies.

A picket fence function for adherens junctions in epithelial cell polarity.

Adherens junctions are a defining feature of all epithelial cells, providing cell-cell adhesion and contractile ring formation that is essential for cell and tissue morphology. In Drosophila, adherens junctions are concentrated between the apical and basolateral plasma membrane domains, defined by aPKC-Par6-Baz and Lgl/Dlg/Scrib, respectively. Whether adherens junctions contribute to apical-basal polarization itself has been unclear because neuroblasts exhibit apical-basal polarization of aPKC-Par6-Baz and Lgl in the absence of adherens junctions. Here we show that, upon disruption of adherens junctions in epithelial cells, apical polarity determinants such as aPKC can still segregate from basolateral Lgl, but lose their sharp boundaries and also overlap with Dlg and Scrib - similar to neuroblasts. In addition, control of apical versus basolateral domain size is lost, along with control of cell shape, in the absence of adherens junctions. Manipulating the levels of apical Par3/Baz or basolateral Lgl polarity determinants in experiments and in computer simulations confirms that adherens junctions provide a 'picket fence' diffusion barrier that restricts the spread of polarity determinants along the membrane to enable precise domain size control. Movement of adherens junctions in response to mechanical forces during morphogenetic change thus enables spontaneous adjustment of apical versus basolateral domain size as an emergent property of the polarising system.

Properties of Transport Mediated by the Human Organic Cation Transporter 2 Studied in a Polarized Three-Dimensional Epithelial Cell Culture Model.

The renal secretory clearance for organic cations (neurotransmitters, metabolism products and drugs) is mediated by transporters specifically expressed in the basolateral and apical plasma membrane domains of proximal tubule cells. Here, human organic cation transporter 2 (hOCT2) is the main transporter for organic cations in the basolateral membrane domain. In this study, we stably expressed hOCT2 in Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells and cultivated these cells in the presence of an extracellular matrix to obtain three-dimensional (3D) structures (cysts). The transport properties of hOCT2 expressed in MDCK cysts were compared with those measured using human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293) stably transfected with hOCT2 (hOCT2-HEK cells). In the MDCK cysts, hOCT2 was expressed in the basolateral membrane domain and showed a significant uptake of the fluorescent organic cation 4-(4-(dimethylamino)styryl)-N-methylpyridinium (ASP+) with an affinity (Km) of 3.6 ± 1.2 µM, similar to what was measured in the hOCT2-HEK cells (Km = 3.1 ± 0.2 µM). ASP+ uptake was inhibited by tetraethylammonium (TEA+), tetrapentylammonium (TPA+), metformin and baricitinib both in the hOCT2-HEK cells and the hOCT2- MDCK cysts, even though the apparent affinities of TEA+ and baricitinib were dependent on the expression system. Then, hOCT2 was subjected to the same rapid regulation by inhibition of p56lck tyrosine kinase or calmodulin in the hOCT2-HEK cells and hOCT2- MDCK cysts. However, inhibition of casein kinase II regulated only activity of hOCT2 expressed in MDCK cysts and not in HEK cells. Taken together, these results suggest that the 3D cell culture model is a suitable tool for the functional analysis of hOCT2 transport properties, depending on cell polarization.

Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1 Trafficking to Cilia of Thyroid Epithelial Cells.

Trace amine-associated receptor 1 (rodent Taar1/human TAAR1) is a G protein-coupled receptor that is mainly recognized for its functions in neuromodulation. Previous in vitro studies suggested that Taar1 may signal from intracellular compartments. However, we have shown Taar1 to localize apically and on ciliary extensions in rodent thyrocytes, suggesting that at least in the thyroid, Taar1 may signal from the cilia at the apical plasma membrane domain of thyrocytes in situ, where it is exposed to the content of the follicle lumen containing putative Taar1 ligands. This study was designed to explore mouse Taar1 (mTaar1) trafficking, heterologously expressed in human and rat thyroid cell lines in order to establish an in vitro system in which Taar1 signaling from the cell surface can be studied in future. The results showed that chimeric mTaar1-EGFP traffics to the apical cell surface and localizes particularly to spherical structures of polarized thyroid cells, procilia, and primary cilia upon serum-starvation. Moreover, mTaar1-EGFP appears to form high molecular mass forms, possibly homodimers and tetramers, in stably expressing human thyroid cell lines. However, only monomeric mTaar1-EGFP was cell surface biotinylated in polarized human thyrocytes. In polarized rat thyrocytes, mTaar1-EGFP is retained in the endoplasmic reticulum, while cilia were reached by mTaar1-EGFP transiently co-expressed in combination with an HA-tagged construct of the related mTaar5. We conclude that Taar1 trafficking to cilia depends on their integrity. The results further suggest that an in vitro cell model was established that recapitulates Taar1 trafficking in thyrocytes in situ, in principle, and will enable studying Taar1 signaling in future, thus extending our general understanding of its potential significance for thyroid autoregulation.

Recent advances in understanding tight junctions

Tight junctions (TJs) are one type of cell–cell junction in epithelial cell types in vertebrates. They form a paracellular diffusion barrier and create the boundary between the apical and basolateral plasma membrane domains. The molecular constituents of TJs have mostly been identified, and now their cell biology has shifted to understanding of their formation, dynamics, and functional regulation as well as their relationship to the organization of epithelial cells. Accumulating novel findings are supported by new methods, including super-resolution microscopy, quantitative microscopy, biophysical measurements, and genome editing-mediated gene manipulation. As a conceptual breakthrough, liquid-liquid phase separation seems to be involved in the formation of TJs as super-molecular complexes. This short article summarizes seminal studies in the cell biology of TJs from the last three years.

Quantitative Structural Organization of Bulk Apical Membrane Traffic in Pollen Tubes.

Pollen tube tip growth depends on balancing secretion of cell wall material with endocytic recycling of excess material incorporated into the plasma membrane (PM). The classical model of tip growth, which predicts bulk secretion, occurs apically, and is compensated by subapical endocytosis, has been challenged in recent years. Many signaling proteins and lipids with important functions in the regulation of membrane traffic underlying tip growth associate with distinct regions of the pollen tube PM, and understanding the mechanisms responsible for the targeting of these regulatory factors to specific PM domains requires quantitative information concerning the sites of bulk secretion and endocytosis. Here, we quantitatively characterized the spatial organization of membrane traffic during tip growth by analyzing steady-state distributions and dynamics of FM4-64-labeled lipids and YFP-tagged transmembrane (TM) proteins in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) pollen tubes growing normally or treated with Brefeldin A to block secretion. We established that (1) secretion delivers TM proteins and recycled membrane lipids to the same apical PM domain, and (2) FM4-64-labeled lipids, but not the analyzed TM proteins, undergo endocytic recycling within a clearly defined subapical region. We mathematically modeled the steady-state PM distributions of all analyzed markers to better understand differences between them and to support the experimental data. Finally, we mapped subapical F-actin fringe and trans-Golgi network positioning relative to sites of bulk secretion and endocytosis to further characterize functions of these structures in apical membrane traffic. Our results support and further define the classical model of apical membrane traffic at the tip of elongating pollen tubes.

\u201cReversed polarization\u201d of Na/K-ATPase\u2014a sign of inverted transport in the human endolymphatic sac: a super-resolution structured illumination microscopy (SR-SIM) study

The human endolymphatic sac (ES) is believed to regulate inner ear fluid homeostasis and to be associated with Meniere’s disease (MD). We analyzed the ion transport protein sodium/potassium-ATPase (Na/K-ATPase) and its isoforms in the human ES using super-resolution structured illumination microscopy (SR-SIM). Human vestibular aqueducts were collected during trans-labyrinthine vestibular schwannoma surgery after obtaining ethical permission. Antibodies against various isoforms of Na/K-ATPase and additional solute-transporting proteins, believed to be essential for ion and fluid transport, were used for immunohistochemistry. A population of epithelial cells of the human ES strongly expressed Na/K-ATPase α1, β1, and β3 subunit isoforms in either the lateral/basolateral or apical plasma membrane domains. The β1 isoform was expressed in the lateral/basolateral plasma membranes in mostly large cylindrical cells, while β3 and α1 both were expressed with “reversed polarity” in the apical cell membrane in lower epithelial cells. The heterogeneous expression of Na/K-ATPase subunits substantiates earlier notions that the ES is a dynamic structure where epithelial cells show inverted epithelial transport. Dual absorption and secretion processes may regulate and maintain inner ear fluid homeostasis. These findings may shed new light on the etiology of endolymphatic hydrops and MD.

Clustering in the Golgi apparatus governs sorting and function of GPI-APs in polarized epithelial cells.

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins (GPI-APs) are lipid APs attached to the extracellular leaflet of the plasma membrane (PM) via a glycolipid anchor. GPI-APs are commonly associated with cholesterol- and sphingolipid-enriched membrane microdomains. These microdomains help regulating various biological activities, by segregating different proteins and lipids in (nanoscale) membrane compartments. In fibroblasts, GPI-APs form actin- and cholesterol-dependent nanoclusters directly at the PM. In contrast, in polarized epithelial cells GPI-APs cluster in the Golgi apparatus, the major protein-sorting hub for the secretory pathway. Golgi clustering is required for the selective sorting of GPI-APs to the apical PM domain, but also regulates their organization and biological activities at the cell surface. In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the mechanism of GPI-AP sorting to the apical membrane. We focus on the roles of the protein moiety andlipids in the regulation of the clustering of GPI-APs in the Golgi apparatus.

Analysis of the Localization of Fluorescent PpROP1 and PpROP-GEF4 Fusion Proteins in Moss Protonemata Based on Genomic "Knock-In" and Estradiol-Titratable Expression.

Tip growth of pollen tubes, root hairs, and apical cells of moss protonemata is controlled by ROP (Rho of plants) GTPases, which were shown to accumulate at the apical plasma membrane of these cells. However, most ROP localization patterns reported in the literature are based on fluorescent protein tagging and need to be interpreted with caution, as ROP fusion proteins were generally overexpressed at undefined levels, in many cases without assessing effects on tip growth. ROP-GEFs, important regulators of ROP activity, were also described to accumulate at the apical plasma membrane during tip growth. However, to date only the localization of fluorescent ROP-GEF fusion proteins strongly overexpressed using highly active promoters have been investigated. Here, the intracellular distributions of fluorescent PpROP1 and PpROP-GEF4 fusion proteins expressed at essentially endogenous levels in apical cells of Physcomitrella patens “knock-in” protonemata were analyzed. Whereas PpROP-GEF4 was found to associate with a small apical plasma membrane domain, PpROP1 expression was below the detection limit. Estradiol-titratable expression of a fluorescent PpROP1 fusion protein at the lowest detectable level, at which plant development was only marginally affected, was therefore employed to show that PpROP1 also accumulates at the apical plasma membrane, although within a substantially larger domain. Interestingly, RNA-Seq data indicated that the majority of all genes active in protonemata are expressed at lower levels than PpROP1, suggesting that estradiol-titratable expression may represent an important alternative to “knock-in” based analysis of the intracellular distribution of fluorescent fusion proteins in protonemal cells.

Novel protein trafficking and signaling pathways in kidney physiology and pathophysiology

The nephron's fluid and electrolyte transport properties are determined largely by the inventories of ion transport proteins occupying the apical and basolateral plasma membrane domains of renal tubule epithelial cells. The asymmetric apportioning of ion channels, transporters and pumps among these domains determines the nature of the fluxes maintained by renal epithelia. Generation and maintenance of differentiated plasmalemmal domains requires a cell to possess machinery capable of discriminating among newly synthesized membrane proteins. Information embedded in these proteins' structures serves as sorting signals that specify their appropriate destinations.To follow the fates of newly synthesized membrane proteins in polarized epithelial cells, we have adapted a technique that permits direct observation of temporally defined cohorts of proteins via the combination of fluorescence microscopy with pulse‐chase labeling protocols. Using this technique, we can follow cohorts of protein as they are synthesized and trafficked. We have found that different proteins that are destined for the same destination appear to travel to the cell surface in separate vesicular carriers. We have also found that the base of the primary cilium appears to be a “hot spot” for the delivery of newly synthesized proteins.Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD) affects ~1 in 1,000 people and is the most common potentially lethal genetic condition, leading to end stage renal disease in ~50% of patients. ADPKD is caused by mutations in the genes encoding polycystin‐1 (PC1) and polycystin‐2 (PC2). PC1 is an enormous membrane protein that spans the bilayer 11 times, with a large extracellular N terminal domain and a short C terminal domain that faces the cytoplasm. PC2 is a member of the TRP family of non‐selective calcium‐permeable cation channels. The PC1 and PC2 proteins participate in a number of signaling pathways and exhibit complex patterns of subcellular localization. PC1 and PC2 interact with each other and with numerous other proteins that may modulate their trafficking properties or their involvement in signal transduction. Both PC1 and PC2 localize to the primary cilium where they appear to participate in mechanosensory or chemosensory processes. We have found that polycystin trafficking and function are regulated by oxygen‐sensing pathways. We have also found that the C‐terminal tail of Polycystin‐1 is released by a proteolytic cleavage, allowing it to travel to the nucleus, where it is involved in the regulation of several transcriptional pathways that modulate proliferation, apoptosis and cell fate determination. Finally, we find that PC1 functions as a receptor in a novel signal transduction pathway that regulates cell growth.Support or Funding InformationNIDDK and DoDThis abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Interaction of the New Monofunctional Anticancer Agent Phenanthriplatin With Transporters for Organic Cations.

Cancer treatment with platinum compounds is an important achievement of modern chemotherapy. However, despite the beneficial effects, the clinical impact of these agents is hampered by the development of drug resistance as well as dose-limiting side effects. The efficacy but also side effects of platinum complexes can be mediated by uptake through plasma membrane transporters. In the kidneys, plasma membrane transporters are involved in their secretion into the urine. Renal secretion is accomplished by uptake from the blood into the proximal tubules cells, followed by excretion into the urine. The uptake process is mediated mainly by organic cation transporters (OCT), which are expressed in the basolateral domain of the plasma membrane facing the blood. The excretion of platinum into the urine is mediated by exchange with protons via multidrug and toxin extrusion proteins (MATE) expressed in the apical domain of plasma membrane. Recently, the monofunctional, cationic platinum agent phenanthriplatin, which is able to escape common cellular resistance mechanisms, has been synthesized and investigated. In the present study, the interaction of phenanthriplatin with transporters for organic cations has been evaluated. Phenanthriplatin is a high affinity substrate for OCT2, but has a lower apparent affinity for MATEs. The presence of these transporters increased cytotoxicity of phenanthriplatin. Therefore, phenanthriplatin may be especially effective in the treatment of cancers that express OCTs, such as colon cancer cells. However, the interaction of phenanthriplatin with OCTs suggests that its use as chemotherapeutic agent may be complicated by OCT-mediated toxicity. Unlike cisplatin, phenanthriplatin interacts with high specificity with hMATE1 and hMATE2K in addition to hOCT2. This interaction may facilitate its efflux from the cells and thereby decrease overall efficacy and/or toxicity.

Intestinal epithelial cell polarity defects in disease: lessons from microvillus inclusion disease.

ABSTRACTThe intestinal epithelium is a highly organized tissue. The establishment of epithelial cell polarity, with distinct apical and basolateral plasma membrane domains, is pivotal for both barrier formation and for the uptake and vectorial transport of nutrients. The establishment of cell polarity requires a specialized subcellular machinery to transport and recycle proteins to their appropriate location. In order to understand and treat polarity-associated diseases, it is necessary to understand epithelial cell-specific trafficking mechanisms. In this Review, we focus on cell polarity in the adult mammalian intestine. We discuss how intestinal epithelial polarity is established and maintained, and how disturbances in the trafficking machinery can lead to a polarity-associated disorder, microvillus inclusion disease (MVID). Furthermore, we discuss the recent developments in studying MVID, including the creation of genetically manipulated cell lines, mouse models and intestinal organoids, and their uses in basic and applied research.

MAPKs Influence Pollen Tube Growth by Controlling the Formation of Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-Bisphosphate in an Apical Plasma Membrane Domain.

An apical plasma membrane domain enriched in the regulatory phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PtdIns(4,5)P2] is critical for polar tip growth of pollen tubes. How the biosynthesis of PtdIns(4,5)P2 by phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinases (PI4P 5-kinases) is controlled by upstream signaling is currently unknown. The pollen-expressed PI4P 5-kinase PIP5K6 is required for clathrin-mediated endocytosis and polar tip growth in pollen tubes. Here, we identify PIP5K6 as a target of the pollen-expressed mitogen-activated protein kinase MPK6 and characterize the regulatory effects. Based on an untargeted mass spectrometry approach, phosphorylation of purified recombinant PIP5K6 by pollen tube extracts could be attributed to MPK6. Recombinant MPK6 phosphorylated residues T590 and T597 in the variable insert of the catalytic domain of PIP5K6, and this modification inhibited PIP5K6 activity in vitro. PIP5K6 interacted with MPK6 in yeast two-hybrid tests, immuno-pull-down assays, and by bimolecular fluorescence complementation at the apical plasma membrane of pollen tubes. In vivo, MPK6 expression resulted in reduced plasma membrane association of a fluorescent PtdIns(4,5)P2 reporter and decreased endocytosis without impairing membrane association of PIP5K6. Effects of PIP5K6 expression on pollen tube growth and cell morphology were attenuated by coexpression of MPK6 in a phosphosite-dependent manner. Our data indicate that MPK6 controls PtdIns(4,5)P2 production and membrane trafficking in pollen tubes, possibly contributing to directional growth.

Emerging relationship between CFTR, actin and tight junction organization in cystic fibrosis airway epithelium.

Cystic fibrosis (CF), one of the most common genetic disorders affecting primarily Caucasians, is due to mutations in the CF Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR) gene, encoding for a chloride channel also acting as regulator of other transmembrane proteins. In healthy subjects, CFTR is maintained in its correct apical plasma membrane location via the formation of a multiprotein complex in which scaffold proteins (such as NHERF1) and signaling molecules (such as cAMP and protein kinases) guarantee its correct functioning. In CF, a disorganized and dysfunctional airway epithelium brings an altered flux of ions and water into the lumen of bronchioles, consequent bacterial infections and an enormous influx of inflammatory cells (mainly polymorphonuclear neutrophils) into the airway lumen. Recent evidence in healthy airway cells supports the notion that CFTR protein/function is strictly correlated with the actin cytoskeleton and tight junctions status. In CF cells, the most frequent CFTR gene mutation, F508del, has been shown to be associated with a disorganized actin cytoskeleton and altered tight junction permeability. Thus, the correct localization of CFTR on the apical plasma membrane domain through the formation of the scaffolding and signaling complex is likely fundamental to determine a physiological airway epithelium. The correction of CFTR mutations by either gene or drug therapies, as well as by stem cell-based interventions, can determine the resumption of a physiological organization of actin stress fibers and TJ structure and barrier function, further indicating the close interrelationship among these processes.

Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1 Localization at the Apical Plasma Membrane Domain of Fisher Rat Thyroid Epithelial Cells Is Confined to Cilia

Background: The trace amine-associated receptor 1 (Taar1) is one member of the Taar family of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) accepting various biogenic amines as ligands. It has been proposed that Taar1 mediates rapid, membrane-initiated effects of thyronamines, the endogenous decarboxylated and deiodinated relatives of the classical thyroid hormones T₄ and T₃. Objectives: Although the physiological actions of thyronamines in general and 3-iodothyronamine (T₁AM) in particular are incompletely understood, studies published to date suggest that synthetic T₁AM-activated Taar1 signaling antagonizes thyromimetic effects exerted by T₃. However, the location of Taar1 is currently unknown. Methods: To fill this gap in our knowledge we employed immunofluorescence microscopy and a polyclonal antibody to detect Taar1 protein expression in thyroid tissue from Fisher rats, wild-type and taar1-deficient mice, and in the polarized FRT cells. Results: With this approach we found that Taar1 is expressed in the membranes of subcellular compartments of the secretory pathway and on the apical plasma membrane of FRT cells. Three-dimensional analyses further revealed Taar1 immunoreactivity in cilial extensions of postconfluent FRT cell cultures that had formed follicle-like structures. Conclusions: The results suggest Taar1 transport along the secretory pathway and its accumulation in the primary cilium of thyrocytes. These findings are of significance considering the increasing interest in the role of cilia in harboring functional GPCR. We hypothesize that thyronamines can reach and activate Taar1 in thyroid follicular epithelia by acting from within the thyroid follicle lumen, their potential site of synthesis, as part of a nonclassical mechanism of thyroid autoregulation.

Covering the Cover

The intestinal tract is lined by a layer of cells that form a barrier between the outside and inside worlds, but permits the selective transport of compounds in both directions. Essential to intestinal function is a monolayer of polarized columnar cells. The presence of unique proteins on the apical and basolateral plasma membrane domains of polarized enterocytes enables asymmetric transport across the epithelia. The loss of epithelial polarity is consequently disastrous for intestinal function, as is reflected by microvillous inclusion disease, a recessive genetic disease characterized by the inability to deliver proteins to the apical plasma membrane.

Bipolar Plasma Membrane Distribution of Phosphoinositides and Their Requirement for Auxin-Mediated Cell Polarity and Patterning in Arabidopsis.

Cell polarity manifested by asymmetric distribution of cargoes, such as receptors and transporters, within the plasma membrane (PM) is crucial for essential functions in multicellular organisms. In plants, cell polarity (re)establishment is intimately linked to patterning processes. Despite the importance of cell polarity, its underlying mechanisms are still largely unknown, including the definition and distinctiveness of the polar domains within the PM. Here, we show in Arabidopsis thaliana that the signaling membrane components, the phosphoinositides phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PtdIns4P) and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PtdIns(4,5)P2] as well as PtdIns4P 5-kinases mediating their interconversion, are specifically enriched at apical and basal polar plasma membrane domains. The PtdIns4P 5-kinases PIP5K1 and PIP5K2 are redundantly required for polar localization of specifically apical and basal cargoes, such as PIN-FORMED transporters for the plant hormone auxin. As a consequence of the polarity defects, instructive auxin gradients as well as embryonic and postembryonic patterning are severely compromised. Furthermore, auxin itself regulates PIP5K transcription and PtdIns4P and PtdIns(4,5)P2 levels, in particular their association with polar PM domains. Our results provide insight into the polar domain-delineating mechanisms in plant cells that depend on apical and basal distribution of membrane lipids and are essential for embryonic and postembryonic patterning.

Par1b Induces Asymmetric Inheritance of Plasma Membrane Domains via LGN-Dependent Mitotic Spindle Orientation in Proliferating Hepatocytes

Author SummaryThe development and maintenance of the polarized epithelial architecture and function of organs that form tubular “lumen” structures is important for normal physiology and, when deregulated, gives rise to disease. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of a strict coordination of the orientation of mitotic divisions relative to an internal axis of asymmetry in proliferating epithelial cells during this process. Hepatocytes are the predominant epithelial cells of the liver. Hepatocytes display a unique lumen-forming architecture and cellular asymmetry, but the molecular basis for this special polarized architecture is not well understood. Our study now reveals an unexpected mode of plasma membrane domain inheritance that is coupled to a cellular axis of asymmetry in proliferating mammalian hepatocytes. We show that mitotic hepatocytes asymmetrically segregate their apical plasma membrane (the membrane facing the lumen structure) along with the lumen to their daughter cells. We demonstrate that the coordinated action of two proteins, Par1b and LGN, constitutes a fundamental part of the underlying molecular mechanism. This coupling of cell division and polarity in hepatocytes is distinct from that established in other epithelial cell types. These findings are important for understanding the unique polarized tissue architecture in the developing liver.

Targeting and Regulation of Cell Wall Synthesis During Tip Growth in Plants

Root hairs and pollen tubes are formed through tip growth, a process requiring synthesis of new cell wall material and the precise targeting and integration of these components to a selected apical plasma membrane domain in the growing tips of these cells. Presence of a tip-focused calcium gradient, control of actin cytoskeleton dynamics, and formation and targeting of secretory vesicles are essential to tip growth. Similar to cells undergoing diffuse growth, cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectins are also deposited in the growing apices of tip-growing cells. However, differences in the manner in which these cell wall components are targeted and inserted in the expanding portion of tip-growing cells is reflected by the identification of elements of the plant cell wall synthesis machinery which have been shown to play unique roles in tip-growing cells. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the tip growth process, with a particular focus on the subcellular targeting of newly synthesized cell wall components, and their roles in this form of plant cell expansion.

KIF16B delivers for transcytosis

Protein sorting pathways control correct delivery of membrane proteins to specific compartments of the plasma membrane and are required to maintain the physiological functions in all epithelia. Most clathrin‐dependent cargoes require the adaptor protein complexes AP‐1A and AP‐1B for proper sorting to the basolateral plasma membrane. In this issue of The EMBO Journal , Perez Bay et al (2013) shed light on the mechanism of basal‐to‐apical protein transport, or transcytosis, of the transferrin receptor in natively AP‐1B‐deficient epithelia. In AP‐1B‐deficient epithelia, the transferrin receptor transcytoses through the apical recycling endosome, and requires Rab11. Furthermore, they characterize a novel and specific role for the endosomal microtubule motor Kinesin KIF16B in transferrin receptor apical transport. These findings constitute the first characterization of a specific microtubule motor involved in basal‐to‐apical transcytosis in epithelia. Epithelial cells present a compartmentalized plasma membrane, where the composition of each compartment is tightly controlled by a precise protein and lipid sorting machinery (Folsch, 2008). The two most conspicuous compartments are the apical and basolateral domains, which generate and segregate from each other through the formation of apically localized junctional complexes. Protein sorting mechanisms ensure delivery of newly synthesized or recycled, protein components to their proper localization in either the apical or basolateral plasma membrane domains. Vectorial transport of proteins requires sorting determinants that are present in the cytoplasmic, transmembrane or …