Apartheid Legislation Research Articles

Preservation of the Bokaap, Cape Town: changes in attitudes and actions

The Bokaap is a distinctive Cape Muslim residential area west of the Central Business District of Cape Town, which has survived the ravages of time, commercial intrusion and apartheid legislation. This article is a study in changing attitudes and actions towards the Bokaap – and the Old Malay Quarter within it - over the last 50 years. The article first addresses the changing attitudes associated with the problems of slum clearance and redevelopment in the Old Malay Quarter during the 1930s, and with the unofficial campaign early in 1940 to preserve it. Emanating from the preservation campaign there were changes in official attitudes and actions towards the Old Malay Quarter from the 1950s until the early 1970s.

The High Court Ruling Against Ingonyama Trust: Implications for South Africa’s Land Governance Policy

ABSTRACT This article discusses the implication of the 2021 CASAC v Ingonyama Trust judgment on South Africa’s land governance policy trajectories. It explores the extent to which there are missing links between policy imperatives, the legal system, court processes and socio-economic emancipation. It argues that the failure of the state in policy design and implementation has turned courts into contradictory sites of struggle for emancipating land rights. In particular, we examine some of the key specific and broader implications that emanate from the landmark ruling in the case that was lodged by the Council for the Advancement of South African Constitution and Rural Women’s Movement against the Ingonyama Trust and Board, where the conduct of Ingonyama Trust was found to be illegal and unconstitutional, as it undermined the indigenous land rights of people occupying the land by converting their land tenure rights into leasehold. The verdict was a huge affirmation of indigenous land rights, but the judgment is unlikely to translate into clear policy. Instead, it has unleashed confusion and dilemma tied to colonial and apartheid legacies as well as competing jurisdictions. Our main argument is that court judgments become de facto policy statements, but those policies are not easily implemented because they are intersectional. We show that current land policies, including the one involving the Ingonyama Trust, has an intersectional genesis that includes old apartheid legislation and policies, the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, as well as legislature and other political deals (such as negotiations to bring about reconciliation) that cannot be easily undone by any one court judgment.

Between Rocks and Hard Places: the Controversial Career of A.S. Mopeli-Paulus

This paper offers an overview of the career and writings of A.S. Mopeli-Paulus, with key concerns being his Lesotho–South African transborder experience, his self-identification as a Mosotho, his sometimes rarefied attempts to account for “Sesotho being,” and his regression from resisting apartheid legislation to participation in the Bantustan administration. The paper examines his English language novels, autobiography and unpublished fiction, but also covers some of his work in Sesotho, including two little-known final publications, which, together with interview material from his son Chiefta, throw light on the more controversial aspects of his career.

Transformation in South African Tourism: A Geographical Perspective on the Eastern Cape

In the international scholarship about tourism small firms the most distinguishing feature of South Africa relates to transformation debates. This article represents a contribution to the vibrant literature around small tourism firms and change in the global South by analysing the geographies of transformation in one South African province, the Eastern Cape. An historical approach is applied to understand the spatial patterns of transformation as mapped in patterns of ownership of Black small-scale accommodation enterprises. The historical approach shows that different regulatory regimes regarding Black entrepreneurs and their involvement in South African tourism have existed at different times and especially under the influence of apartheid legislation and following democratic change. The formative period of Eastern Cape tourism during the first half of the 20th century witnessed the establishment of a tourism economy dominated by White entrepreneurs and most especially in the coastal areas. The apartheid period, however, allowed a small window of opportunity for Black entrepreneurs to establish tourism businesses in the former ‘reserves’ which would become the Homelands. It is shown that the former Homelands areas are currently the most advanced transformation spaces. This finding reinforces the view that whilst with the end of apartheid the Homelands formally ceased to exist their legacy remains inscribed on the character and geographical patterns of tourism small firm development in South Africa.

'n Ou skoolsaal of teater - die opvoerruimtes van die Cape Flats Players en die Eoan-groep

Die teaternavorser Temple Hauptfleisch spreek in 1983 kommer uit oor die agteruitgang van plaaslike amateurteater. Hy identifiseer verskeie faktore om dit te stimuleer, onder meer die beskikbaarheid van 'n saal of 'n teater, verkieslik laasgenoemde, "omdat vir vandag se geso-fistikeerde gehore die ou skoolsaal nie meer goed genoeg is nie". Hierdie artikel ondersoek na aanleiding van hierdie stelling die lotgevalle van die Cape Flats Players en die Eoan-groep, beide Kaapse amateurgeselskappe tydens die hoogbloei van apartheid. Die beskikbaarheid van teatergeriewe en veral die toepassing van apartheidswetgewing met verwysing na die Wet op die Aanwysing van Aparte Geriewe en die Groepsgebiedewet, word van nader beskou. Die ondersoek vind plaas aan die hand van Michel Foucault, David Harvey en Henri Lefebvre se insigte oor die aard van plek en ruimte. Hier is bevind dat die Cape Flats Players nie toegang tot teaters gehad het nie; dat die toegang van gehore beperk was; dat hulle nie-tradisionele ruimtes moes gebruik; dat hulle geen beheer oor die aard en demografie van hulle gehore gehad het nie en dat hulle nuwe netwerke van verbandhoudende individue en groepe gevestig het. Ten opsigte van die Eoan-groep is bevind dat die apartheidswetgewing tot gevolg gehad het dat hul kulturele netwerk vernietig is. Ná die oprigting van hul eie teater, het hul onmiddellike gemeenskap die fasiliteit geboikot, hoofsaaklik vanweë die apartheidsregering se geldelike steun aan die groep. Die kontrasterende ervaring van die Cape Flats Players wat in 1991 in die voorheen "slegs blankes" Nico Malan-teater opgetree het, word bespreek. Alhoewel daar kritiek teen hul optrede was, het dit ook die einde van die boikot van die teaterkompleks ingelui. In die algemeen is bevind dat opvoerruimtes verbande oproep met ander ruimtes, geskiedenisse en simbole. Die keuse tussen "'n ou skoolsaal" en "'n teater" mag eenvoudig klink, maar verdoesel verwikkelde vrae oor ruimtes, toegang en uitsluiting.

Respectability – Armour Against Inferiority

Respectability has been a significant feature of status in the Cape, shaped by racial dynamics that have their foundation in slavery and colonialism and later formalised in apartheid legislation. The issue of representation is central to the paper and draws on the work of Stuart Hall who suggests that the concept of representation plays a more active and creative role in how we think about the world and our place in it. Drawing on oral history and personal family photographs taken during apartheid, I postulate that, through acts of performance such as dressing up and sitting for photographs, people who were classified coloured, attempted to take control of the way they were represented. In so doing, they actively resisted their dehumanisation and racial subjugation. In this regard I argue that the photographs defy and resist the memories that we have of apartheid and testify to a will to freedom and humanity.

Living alone and depression in a developing country context: Longitudinal evidence from South Africa.

In South Africa, single-person households were a household type enforced by apartheid legislation, designed to restrict the “influx” of Africans into “white” and typically urban areas of the country. Yet the increase in living alone has been one of the most marked demographic trends of the post-apartheid period. The trend, which has occurred alongside the persistence in individual labor migration patterns and a decline in rates of union formation, has been driven by changes among working-age adults, rather than among older adults. This is the first empirical study to investigate the mental health implications of living alone among all adults in South Africa using national longitudinal data. The data come from five waves of the panel household survey, the National Income Dynamics Study (NIDS), conducted from 2008 to 2017. Information on depressive symptoms was collected from all adults (15 years and older), who were asked the ten questions which make up the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Short Depression Scale (CES-D 10). Adults who lived alone reported significantly higher depression scores than other adults, in the pooled ordinary least squares models, and in the fixed effects model, which controlled for any unobservable, time-invariant differences between the two groups of adults. Vulnerability to depression was moderated by adults’ preferences to continue living in their area of residence (as a measure of their social integration), but the positive relationship remained sizeable and significant across all models. The findings shed light on a further dimension of the migrant labor system in South Africa, which has not received adequate attention in the empirical literature, viz. the mental health implications for adults of solo migration, and they provide further motivation for the provision of affordable and safe family housing in local areas of employment.

Changes in pastoral mobility in a semi-arid montane region of South Africa: The role of policy and legislation

Legislation and policy are key tools used by governments to change the socio-economic and political landscape of agrarian systems with consequences for mobile pastoralism. This study used the social-ecological systems framework to examine how pastoral mobility in the semi-arid, montane communal rangeland in South Africa adapted to the changing socio-political landscape. It analysed the impact of apartheid and democratic era legislation and policies over the past 70 years. Apartheid legislation promoted betterment planning and the privatisation of communal lands by awarding access to most of the grazing areas to a few wealthier pastoralists. This led to increased stocking densities and further restriction of herd mobility when the majority of herds were restricted to fewer grazing camps. Democratic era land reform policies continue to advocate for the modernisation and sedentarisation of pastoral practices. The persistence of mobility among livestock keepers despite discriminatory policy interventions suggests that this is a particularly resilient and necessary element of their practices. We argue that agricultural legislation and policies regarding livestock farming should promote landscape connectivity to allow mobile pastoralists to access variable resources. Connected landscapes should be viewed as alternative ways to modernising pastoralism and these should prevent elite capture when the land is subdivided.

Striking a Regulatory Bargain. The Legal Profession, Associations and the State in South Africa

This article examines the regulation of the legal profession in South Africa from colonial times, through apartheid and into the post-apartheid period. It narrates the changing relationship between professional associations and the state, locating these events within the debates on professional self-regulation. Taking the view that professional self-regulation is as a result of ‘an arrangement’ between professions and the state it explores the regulatory bargain struck between associations and the state. The paper demonstrates that during the apartheid period the profession utilised apartheid legislation to exclude black legal professionals. However, in the post-apartheid period, when the state proposed legislative interventions in order to enable access to both the profession and justice, a new regulatory bargain had to be negotiated.

‘A grass widow’s gendered narrative’: Renegotiating identities in Lauretta Ngcobo’s The prodigal daughter

Ngcobo's oeuvre is primarily concerned with the role of women in the liberation struggle, an area which was widely underestimated by her male counterparts. She uses life-writings to describe the important role played by women in society, and the suffering they experienced within the borders of South Africa and in exile, their courage and commitment, creativity and solidarity in the face of challenges as they performed the roles that were expected of them. Ngcobo's perspective is informed by her identities as Zulu wife and mother, an educated professional, a political activist and a recorder of histories. She describes the core of women's suffering as the denial of conjugal rights and their inability to support the family due to apartheid legislation, which isolated activists and denied them contact with their families and communities. This article uses narrative identity theory to argue that Ngcobo used narrative strategies to reposition herself as a writer, a matriarch, a wife and a political activist. Through narrative identity theory, this article argues that Ngcobo's use of narrative to renegotiate different identities and the focus on African womanhood, cultural expectations and de-womanisation of ‘The prodigal daughter’ provides a sense of emancipation and wholeness, and contributes to the literature and knowledge about the impact of political consciousness and African ethics on society as a whole.

Historical urban tourism: Developmental challenges in Johannesburg 1920-1950

Over the past decade there has been considerable growth and maturation of research concerning contemporary urban tourism. Tourism in major cities is not a new phenomenon rather it has existed from the earliest times of civilization following the birth of cities. The historical development of cities as tourist destinations has remained little investigated as urban tourism research is overwhelmingly ‘present-minded’. This paper addresses the neglect of historical studies in urban tourism. Using archival sources an investigation is undertaken of the early development of tourism in Johannesburg, South Africa’s largest city, which evolved from a gold mining camp established in 1886. The analysis focuses on the period from 1920 when the first tourism promotional activities were initiated to 1950 when national government enacted the Group Areas Act which began the radical reshaping of tourism in South Africa under the influence of apartheid legislation. In the formative years of urban tourism in Johannesburg between 1920 and 1950 two key overarching challenges are identified. These are the challenges of identifying and promoting the city’s tourism assets and of the building of a competitive infrastructure for tourism development, most notably in terms of the hotel accommodation sector.

SPACE AND TRANSFORMATION: THE STRUGGLE FOR ARCHITECTURE IN POST APARTHEID SOUTH AFRICA


 
 
 The title and this essay, ‘Space and Transformation – the struggle for architecture in post-apartheid South Africa’ derive from the 2nd Annual Nelson Mandela Lecture delivered in Ghent in 2015. Its source as my topic is located in the intersection of three interrelated trajectories. The most obvious is the issue of my disciplinary grounding and the locus of intellectual thought, that of architecture and the complexity associated with the production of space, particularly under conditions of change. The other is the life work and philosophical teaching of this extraordinary man Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela and the third is the condition of the world, and South Africa in particular, as we experience it today at what appears to be this unique historic intersectional moment of globalization and expansive tech- nological shift within our nations’ democratic emergence.
 The essay draws on texts derived from other disciplines, such as literature and philosophy, particularly those that have relevance to conditions of the South, but resorts to the spatial disciplining associated with design. In so doing it reflects on architectural projects produced during the first decades of democratic rule. Most of these projects fall within the realm of human settlement, and have been selected in order to demonstrate transformation relative to the lived reality of ordinary South Africans, especially those marginalised and dispossessed by apartheid legislation. A semi-structured longitudinal analysis has been conducted so as to reflect on the relations between the agency of design and the instrumentation of architecture as practice in determining spatial transformation.
 KEYWORDS: MANDELA, SPACE AND TRANSFORMATION, POST-APARTHEID, RE-RITING ARCHITECTURAL TYPE, DESIGN AGENCY, LAND, HOUSING, SOCIO-SPATIAL INFRASTRUCTURE, RE-BUILDING COMMUNITY.
 
 

South African Dialogue

The potential for hip hop artists to express dissent, to question socio-political inequalities and contest authoritarian structure is most notably conveyed through lyrical means. Think of the lasting impact of Chuck D’s verses in ‘Fight the Power’ or, more recently, Eminem’s contentious freestyle performed at the 2017 BET Hip Hop Awards. This article explores a different form of lyricism, but one that is no less effective in its activist directive to highlight the need for social change. Through contextual and music textural analysis, I interrogate the transcription of a solo performance by South African turntablist Deon “Ready D” Daniels. In this 2006 piece entitled ‘Krap Kommentaar’ (‘Scratch Commentary’), Daniels carefully selects and manipulates vocal excerpts to challenge the hegemony of standardized over vernacular Afrikaans. The former is primarily associated with white Afrikaners (white South Africans of ostensibly Dutch descent), while the latter is identified with Cape Town’s working-class “mixed-race” or “coloured” population (also the social demographic with whom hip hop in the city is linked). Coloureds are a social grouping actively marginalized by apartheid legislation, and for whom a sense of continued exclusion in the contemporary moment is deeply felt. Thus, by re-contextualizing his source material through sampling and scratching, Daniels (re)inscribes Afrikaans language to suit his own purposes, demonstrating a mastery of the speech form. With this musical intervention, Daniels also confronts received notions of entrenched power, effectively critiquing linguistic barriers to socio-political inclusion.

Space and Transformation: The Struggle for Architecture in Post Apartheid South Africa

The title and this essay, ‘Space and Transformation – the struggle for architecture in post-apartheid South Africa’ derive from the 2nd Annual Nelson Mandela Lecture delivered in Ghent in 2015. Its source as my topic is located in the intersection of three interrelated trajectories. The most obvious is the issue of my disciplinary grounding and the locus of intellectual thought, that of architecture and the complexity associated with the production of space, particularly under conditions of change. The other is the life work and philosophical teaching of this extraordinary man Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela and the third is the condition of the world, and South Africa in particular, as we experience it today at what appears to be this unique historic intersectional moment of globalization and expansive technological shift within our nations’ democratic emergence. The essay draws on texts derived from other disciplines, such as literature and philosophy, particularly those that have relevance to conditions of the South, but resorts to the spatial disciplining associated with design. In so doing it reflects on architectural projects produced during the first decades of democratic rule. Most of these projects fall within the realm of human settlement, and have been selected in order to demonstrate transformation relative to the lived reality of ordinary South Africans, especially those marginalised and dispossessed by apartheid legislation. A semi structured longitudinal analysis has been conducted so as to reflect on the relations between the agency of design and the instrumentation of architecture as practice in determining spatial transformation.

From "Ethnocracity" to Urban Apartheid: A View from Jerusalem\al-Quds

In the core of this article stands an argument that while ethnocracy was a relevant analytical framework for understanding the urban dynamics of Jerusalem\al-Quds up until two decades ago, this is no longer the case. As this article demonstrates, ver the past twenty years or so, the city’s geopolitical balance and its means of demographic control, as well as an intensifying militarization and a growing use of state violence, have transformed the city from an ethnocracity into an urban apartheid. Theoretically, this article aims to go beyond the specific analogy with South African apartheid, the most notorious case of such a regime. Rather I would suggest that in our current market-driven, neo-liberal era, an apartheid city should be taken as a distinct urban regime based on urban trends such as privatization of space, gentrification, urban design, infrastructure development and touristic planning. I would propose that these practices substitute for explicit apartheid legislation (of a sort introduced in the South African case), bringing to the fore new participants in the apartheidization of the city, such as real estate developers and various interest groups.

An alien in the country of my birth: Xenophobia reinforcing otherness and promoting exclusion

abstractIn South Africa xenophobia conjures up gruesome images of the 2008 and 2015 attacks. Physically violent attacks appear to make local and international headline news. But xenophobia is not simply about nationals and non-nationals, nor does it only occur as irregular violent outbreaks. Such portrayals obscure other far more widely lived experiences of xenophobia, which largely appear as a means of reinforcing otherness with the purpose of excluding such others from the benefits of citizenship or residence in South Africa.To understand this it is necessary to explore South Africa’s xenophobic past, which has to do with continual struggles for limited resources. These struggles have not been effectively overturned by the removal of discriminatory apartheid legislation and the introduction of South Africa’s Constitution. Our argument is based on author Margaret’s experiences as a South African child born of middle-class immigrant parents, which are anchored in the broader political and social context of South Africa. These experiences produce the very real fear of being denied the Constitutional rights of a South African citizen or resident. Such fears are also experienced by South African citizens ‘proper’, and we include some evidence of this when it comes to interaction with naturalisation and police authorities, as well as what it means with regard to employment. While we have achieved a democracy, the next step is to move out of single-minded racial and ethnic silos to achieve a cosmopolitan democracy as envisaged in the Constitution.

Using life stories to teach about resistance to apartheid

This study investigates the responses of undergraduate history students, who are also student teachers, to the use of the autobiography or biography of an apartheid resister in their third year academic history course. The motivation for using auto/ biography in the history course has been to get away from a lifeless narrative of apartheid legislation and, for students, somewhat anonymous political movements. It has also become apparent that for some students, their school exposure to apartheid history was dulled by narrow focus and repetition. The study examines the reasons for student choices of their human subject, and how their understanding of apartheid resistance and their feelings about it are affected by engaging with life stories. It also investigates the extent to which the historical thinking and historical sense of these students both shapes and is influenced by their engagement with auto/ biography as a form of history. It notes significant levels of interest and empathy generated by the study of apartheid resistance through the life stories, as well as notable levels of commitment and enthusiasm in doing the related tasks. There is some evidence of an ability to critique auto/biography as history as representation; but largely there is an acceptance of the life story of the ‘hero of the struggle’ they studied as truthful.

South African Families of Indian Descent: Transmission of Racial Identity

This article examines how notions of ‘race’ are constructed and transmitted across generations within South African families of Indian descent. The qualitative data analysed and presented in this paper was collected by means of oral histories and semi-structured interviews with five South African families of Indian descent, and has been drawn from a larger data set that was gathered for my doctoral research. I argue in this paper that the continued focus of the democratic South African state on apartheid-era ‘race’ classification in various legislative and bureaucratic guises has resulted in the embeddedness of ‘race’ thinking in the national psyche. This has set limits to identity choices, and the family, therefore, while being an important site of racial identity formation, is superseded in significance by relationships with varying role players in society, including, and most important in this case, the South African state. The born-free and raised-free generation’s uncritical acceptance of the racial label ‘Indian’ does not conflict with the older generations understanding and appropriation of the category. This further points to the cogency of apartheid legislation in a democratic country, and while agency cannot be denied, this paper argues that agency has to be viewed relative to the constraints imposed by society. This paper demonstrates that rejection of the ‘race’ label by participants or resistance to it, is futile, as legally and socially South Africans of Indian descent are marked as ‘Indian’ by virtue of their phenotype and thus remain trapped by state imposed classifications.

Himba in the Mix: The "Catwalk Politics" of Culture in Namibia

runway show has become paradigmatic of late twentieth- centuryspectacle; it has the potential project imaginary worlds and aesthetic ideals, set standards of taste and of distinction, and simultaneously incite desire and controversy various degrees. term catwalk often calls mind the extravagant productions associated with the semiannual fashion weeks of New York, Paris, London, and Milan. In these settings, the runway show is arguably inextricable from the commercial realm and functions as a tool with which designers seek the favorable attention of buyers, editors, trendsetters, and bloggers, all toward a common underlying goal: sell clothing. In this essay, however, aim address how the deployment of the fashion show in a different context can involve a multiplicity of ambitions and outcomes. Specifically, look at the politics of value that underlie the commodification of culture vis-a-vis a fashion show attended in Windhoek, the capital city of postapartheid Namibia.In 2010, the year marking Namibia's twentieth as a nation independent from South Africa, the Franco Namibian Cultural Center (FNCC) and the National Arts Council of Namibia (NACN) sponsored a fashion and photography event titled Himba in the Mix. main attraction was a fashion show featuring the work of seven young female Namibian designers, who created eighteen explicitly contemporary ensembles inspired by the culture of the Ovahimba people, who are one of at least ten recognized ethnic groups in Namibia today. A local newspaper described the event as the first of its kind in the country. Its kind refers the somewhat paradoxical fact that its organizers chose the definitively modern mediums of fashion and the catwalk celebrate traditional culture (Kapitako 2010). present-day Himba are the descendants of Herero pastoralists who remained in northwest Namibia while others migrated southward in the eighteenth century. They have maintained relations with external (that is, non-native African) influences at least since the middle of the nineteenth century, when the first hunters and traders from Cape Town arrived in northern Namibia. It is believed that the Herero had originally migrated what is now southern Angola and northern Namibia in the sixteenth century (Katjavivi 1988). Those who continued southward encountered European settlers and began working in their homes. Converted Christianity and taught sew by German settlers, Herero women adopted Victorian-style dresses made from local cloth, which are today worn with pride as the traditional clothing of the Herero people. Still, the Herero maintained contact with the Himba through the centuries, either through marriage, for example, or by providing aid with cattle grazing (Warnlof 2000, 182). For the most part, the Himba of Namibia remained in the northwestern of the country, which came be called Kaokoland, under the apartheid legislation that designated it the homeland of the Himba.In all the press leading up Himba in the Mix, as well as that which followed and praised its success, a clear purpose for its production was articulated, one that - on the surface at least - had little do with commercial pursuits. Those who organized the event intended for it to counter the consistent life threatening pressure exerted by forces of globalization on the Ovahimba people (Franco Namibia Cultural Center). A cultural officer in the Ministry of Youth, National Service, Sport, and Culture claimed, I can't agree more with the fact that the inevitable exposure Western identity and lifestyle gives young Namibians leeway detach themselves from their own local culture, such an extent that even association with activities of this nature become less significant (Kapitako 2010). He therefore found the endeavor be a much-needed corrective popular attitudes toward Namibia's indigenous groups. Meanwhile, a representative from the FNCC announced its intention, which was resurrect indigenous fashion and make it part and parcel of modern-day fashion, claiming, The overall objective of this project is re-instate that indigenous people's culture and fashion are not as dull and boring as they are perceived be, but instead rich, fascinating, and admirable (Nashuuta 2010). …

Publishing anti-apartheid literature: Athol Fugard’sStatementsplays

This article addresses the creation of Athol Fugard’s plays not as performances or as texts, but as material objects, and examines how the meaning and value of his plays were constructed through the interventions of his publisher. The paper draws attention to the sharp distinction in the way that Fugard’s performances and published plays have been received, most acutely with respect to the plays Sizwe Bansi is Dead, The Island and Statements After an Arrest Under the Immorality Act. These plays directly addressed and attacked apartheid legislation and enforcement. In performance in South Africa between 1972–1973 they were regarded as radical and subversive by the South African authorities as well as by audiences and critics. The Oxford University Press edition of this trilogy, Statements: Three Plays (1974), was by contrast packaged as a literary and commercial product that circulated free from censorship. This essay explores the reasons for this dichotomy through a detailed author/publisher case study of the publication history of the plays. It analyses the means by which Fugard was re-branded as an “Oxford author” through the book’s publication in the Oxford Paperback Series, and assesses the impact of this brand on the reception of Fugard’s plays. The published book was also a more individualistic creative product than the performances of the plays: the Press applied a conventional model of authorship which served to defuse the radical, interracial partnership between Fugard and his co-writers Winston Ntshona and John Kani. Likewise, the political content was neutralized as the plays were promoted as allegorical literary works of universal significance. By these means, it is argued, Fugard was successfully incorporated into the literary establishment in the UK, the USA and South Africa under apartheid.